Chapter 5: Later Medieval India

 Chapter 5: Later Medieval India 

(Political History)

The Delhi Sultanate – Qutb-ud-din Aibak

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210 CE)

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty, the first ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
• He was originally a Turkic slave who later became a trusted general of Muhammad Ghori.
• After Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206 CE, Aibak declared himself the ruler and established independent rule in India, laying the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate.
• He ruled from 1206 to 1210 CE.

Iltutmish (1211–1236 CE):- Shams ud-Din Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and became Sultan after a period of political instability.

Achievements:

• Consolidated the Delhi Sultanate.
• Defeated rival Turkish nobles and strengthened central authority.

2. Razia Sultan (1236–1240 CE):- Razia Sultan was the daughter of Iltutmish and the first woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Iltutmish nominated Razia as his successor because he considered her more capable than his sons.
• After Iltutmish's death, her brother Rukn-ud-din Firuz became Sultan.
• Razia later defeated her brother's supporters and became Sultan in 1236 CE.
• She ruled for about 4 years (1236–1240 CE).
• She faced opposition from Turkish nobles and was eventually defeated and killed in 1240 CE.

Ghiyas ud-Din Balban (1266–1287 CE):- Ghiyas ud-Din Balban belonged to the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty.

Achievements:

• Strengthened the monarchy and made the Sultan's authority supreme.
• Followed the policy of "Blood and Iron" to maintain law and order.
• Crushed rebellions and protected the empire from Mongol invasions.
• Improved administration and military organization.

Jalal-ud-Din Khalji (1290–1296 CE):- Jalal-ud-Din Khalji founded the Khalji Dynasty.

• He overthrew the last weak ruler of the Mamluk Dynasty and established the Khalji Dynasty in 1290 CE.
• Reign: 1290–1296 CE (6 years)
• He was murdered in 1296 CE by his ambitious nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khalji.
• His reign was relatively peaceful compared to later rulers.
• He focused more on maintaining stability than large-scale conquests.
• He consolidated his power in north by conquering Gujrat in 1299, Ranthambhor in  1301 and Chittor in 1303.
• He sent military expeditions to the south under Malik Kafur and subjugated Warrangal, Dwarasamudra, Mabar and Madurai. 1309-1311.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE):-  Alauddin's successors were weak and the last ruler of the dynasty was deposed by a prominent noble named Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq was one of the most famous rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty.
• He ruled from Delhi and controlled a vast empire extending across much of North and Central India and parts of the Deccan.
• Shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (later abandoned).
• Introduced token currency (which failed).
• Planned ambitious military campaigns.
• Tughlaqs were succeeded by the Sayyids and then the Lodi
• Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. 
• Battle of Panipat 1526:- in this battle Lodhi was defeated by Babur  and he founded the Mughal Dynasty.

The Mughals

1. Babur (1526–1530 CE)

• How he became ruler
• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.
• This victory established the Mughal Empire in India.

Important Battles

• First Battle of Panipat (against Ibrahim Lodi)
• Battle of Khanwa (against Rana Sanga)
• Battle of Ghaghra

Region under him:- Delhi, Agra, Punjab, and parts of North India.

Administration:- Laid the foundation of Mughal administration.

Known for

• Introduction of gunpowder warfare.
• Wrote his autobiography, Baburnama.

Humayun (1530–1540 CE, 1555–1556 CE)

• Succeeded Babur in 1530 CE.
• Lost his empire to Sher Shah Suri in 1540 CE.
• Regained the throne in 1555 CE.

Region under him:- Northern India and Delhi after restoration.

Known for:- Re-establishing Mughal rule after years of exile.

Architecture:- His tomb in Delhi, Humayun's Tomb, is considered a masterpiece of Mughal architecture.

3. Akbar (1556–1605 CE)

Important Battles

• Second Battle of Panipat
• Conquest of Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Sindh, and parts of the Deccan.
• Region under him:- Most of North India, Central India, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, and parts of the Deccan.
• Administration:- Introduced the Mansabdari System.
• Divided the empire into provinces called Subas.
• Appointed governors and officials for efficient administration.

Tax System

• Abolished pilgrimage tax in 1563 and the jizya tax 1564.
• Revenue reforms introduced by Raja Todar Mal.
• Land revenue was assessed systematically.

Known for

• Religious tolerance.
• Policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).
• Formation of the Navratnas (Nine Gems).

Architecture

• Fatehpur Sikri
• Buland Darwaza

4. Jahangir (1605–1627 CE)

• Region under him:- Inherited Akbar's vast empire.
• Administration:- Continued Akbar's administrative system.
• Known for:- Love of art and painting., Justice and fair administration.
• The famous Chain of Justice (Zanjir-i-Adl), allowing subjects to seek justice directly.

Architecture

• Development of Mughal painting.
• Construction of beautiful gardens and monuments.

Conflicts

• Faced rebellion from his son Prince Khurram.
• Faced tensions with some Sikh groups after the execution of Guru Arjan Dev.

5. Shah Jahan (1628–1658 CE)

• Region under him:- Mughal Empire reached great prosperity and stability.
• Administration:- Continued Akbar's administrative framework.
• Known for:- The Golden Age of Mughal architecture.
• Architecture:- Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid
• Conflicts:- Faced succession disputes among his sons toward the end of his reign.

6. Aurangzeb (1658–1707 CE)

Region under him

• Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial extent.
• Included most of the Indian subcontinent.

Administration

• Strong central control.
• Long military campaigns in the Deccan.

Tax:- Reimposed the Jizya tax on non-Muslims.

Known for

• Expansion of the empire.
• Strict interpretation of Islamic law.

Conflicts Leading to Tensions

• Long wars against the Marathas.
• Conflicts with some Rajput rulers.
• Tensions with Sikh groups.
• Deccan campaigns weakened imperial finances.

Architecture

• Badshahi Mosque (built during his reign)
• Bibi Ka Maqbara

Development of Art, Architecture, Language and Literature under 

The Delhi Sultanate:- The Delhi Sultans introduced the Indo-Islamic style of architecture, which combined Indian and Persian architectural features.

Main Features

• Use of arches, domes, and minarets.
• Decorative calligraphy and geometric designs.
• Construction of mosques, tombs, forts, and madrasas.
• Extensive use of red sandstone and marble.

Important Monuments

Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty

• Qutb Minar – begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and completed by Shams ud-Din Iltutmish.
• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque.

Khalji Dynasty

• Alai Darwaza built by Alauddin Khalji.
• The Hauz Khas built by Alauddin Khalji.

Tughlaq Dynasty

• Tughlaqabad Fort built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Lodi Dynasty

• Lodi Gardens contains several Lodi-period tombs.

Development of Language

• Persian became the official language of administration and courts.
• Arabic was used mainly for religious studies.
• Interaction between Persian-speaking rulers and local people led to the development of Urdu.
• Urdu evolved from a mixture of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local Indian languages.

Importance of Urdu

• Became a popular language for communication.
• Later developed into an important literary language.

Development of Literature

Persian Literature:- Many scholars, historians, and poets received royal patronage.

Important Writers:- Amir Khusrau

• Known as the "Parrot of India."
• Wrote poetry in Persian.
• Contributed to the development of Hindavi (early Hindi/Urdu).
• Also contributed to music and cultural traditions.

Ziauddin Barani:- Wrote important historical works on the Delhi Sultanate.

Religious Literature

• Islamic scholars wrote books on theology, law, and philosophy.
• Sufi saints spread spiritual teachings through poetry and literature.

The Mughals

1. Development of Art:- Mughal Paintings

• The Mughals greatly encouraged painting and fine arts.
• Mughal paintings combined Persian, Indian, and Central Asian styles.
• Paintings depicted court life, battles, hunting scenes, nature, and portraits.

Important Patrons

• Akbar established a royal painting workshop.
• Jahangir was especially fond of painting and nature studies.
• During Jahangir's reign, Mughal painting reached its highest level.
• The imperial Karkhanas (workshop) patronised painters

Music

• Music flourished under the Mughals.
• Tansen was one of the greatest musicians of Akbar's court.

Development of Architecture:- The Mughals developed a unique architectural style by combining Indian, Persian, and Islamic elements. hey perfect in Indo-Islamic style by combing Pesion symmetry 

Features of Mughal Architecture

• Large domes
• Charbagh (four fold garden)
• Beautiful gardens
• Arches and minarets
• Delicate marble work
• Intricate carvings and inlay decoration
• Symmetrical designs

Architecture reached its peak under Shah Jahan, where balance,proportion, and ornamentation achieved classical perfection.

Important Buildings

Under Babur

• Nishat Bagh inKsahmir,
• The Shalimar in Lahore

Under Humayun

• Humayun's Tomb

Under Akbar

• Fatehpur Sikri
• Buland Darwaza
• Agra Fort

Under Jahangir

• Development of gardens and decorative arts.
• Shalimar Bagh

Under Shah Jahan

• Taj Mahal
• Red Fort
• Jama Masjid
• Moti MAsjid (Agra)

Under Aurangzeb

• Bibi Ka Maqbara
• Badshahi Mosque

Development of Language

• Persian remained the official language of the Mughal court and administration.
• Growth of regional languages such as Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, and Telugu.
• Urdu developed further through the interaction of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local Indian languages.

Importance

• Urdu became a popular language of communication and literature.
• Many Persian works were translated into regional languages.

Development of Literature

Under Akbar

• Many Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian.
• The Mahabharata was translated into Persian as Razmnama.

Important Writers

Abul Fazl

• Wrote Akbarnama.
• Wrote Ain-i-Akbari, which describes Akbar's administration, economy, and society.

Faizi

• Famous Persian poet and scholar.

Abdul Hamid Lahori

• Wrote Padshahnama.

Jahangir's Contribution

• Wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.

Economic and Government

The Delhi Sultanate

A. Government and Administration:- The Delhi Sultanate had a centralized administration headed by the Sultan.

Important Officials

1. Sultan:- 

• The supreme ruler of the empire.
• Controlled administration, army, justice, and revenue.

2. Wazir

• The chief minister of the Sultan.
• Looked after finance and administration.

3. Ariz-i-Mamalik

• Head of the military department.
• Recruited soldiers and maintained army records.

4. Qazi

• Chief judicial officer.
• Administered justice according to Islamic law.

B. Iqta System

Iqta:- An Iqta was a territory assigned to an officer instead of paying a salary in cash.

Iqtadar

• The officer who managed an Iqta.
• Collected revenue from the area.
• Maintained troops and ensured law and order.
• Sent part of the revenue to the Sultan.

C. Economic System

Agriculture

• Main occupation of the people.
• Farmers paid land revenue to the state.

Trade and Commerce

• Internal and overseas trade flourished.
• Roads and markets encouraged commercial activities.

Important Commercial Centres

• Delhi
• Central Asia
• Lahore
• Multan
• Cambay (Khambhat)
• Sonargaon

Main Goods Traded

• Textiles
• Spices
• Horses
• Precious stones
• Metal goods

The Mughal Empire

A. Government and Administration:- The Mughal Empire had a well-organized administrative structure.

1. Emperor:- Supreme authority.

• Controlled administration, military, and justice.

2. Wazir:- Chief Minister.

• Supervised finance and revenue.

3. Mir Bakshi:- Head of the military department.

• Maintained records of soldiers and Mansabdars.

4. Sadr-us-Sudur (Sudur):-Head of religious and charitable affairs.

• Managed grants and religious institutions.

Provincial Administration:- The empire was divided into administrative units.

Suba

• Largest provincial unit.
• Governed by a Subadar.

Sarkar

• District-level administrative unit.

Pargana

• Smaller unit under a Sarkar.
• Consisted of several villages.

Village

• Basic unit of administration.

Mansabdari System:- Introduced by Akbar.

Mansab

• Means rank or position.

Mansabdars

• Military and civil officers.
• Received rank according to status and responsibilities.
• Maintained soldiers for the emperor.

D. Agrarian Economy and Land Revenue

Agriculture

• Backbone of the Mughal economy.
• Most people were farmers.

Land Revenue

• Main source of state income.
• Collected from agricultural production.

Revenue Reforms

• Introduced under Akbar by Raja Todar Mal.
• Land measured carefully.
• Revenue assessed systematically.

E. Trade and Manufacturing

Manufactured Goods

• Cotton textiles
• Silk fabrics
• Carpets
• Metalware
• Jewellery
• Paper

Trade

• Extensive inland and overseas trade.
• Indian goods were exported to Asia, Africa, and Europe.

F. Important Commercial Cities:- Major Trade Centres

• Agra
• Delhi
• Lahore
• Ahmedabad
• Surat:- Major port city. Connected India with West Asia and Europe.
• Patna

Regional Kingdoms: 

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1529 CE)

1. Establishment of the Empire

• The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE.
• It was established by two brothers:- Harihara I,  Bukka Raya I
• The empire was founded on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.
• It emerged as a strong Hindu kingdom in South India.

2. Meaning of Vijayanagara

• The word Vijayanagara means "City of Victory."
• The capital city was Vijayanagara (Hampi).

3. Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529 CE)

• Krishna Deva Raya was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• His reign is considered the Golden Age of the empire.
• He was a strong military leader and an efficient administrator.
• He expanded the empire through successful military campaigns.
• He defeated neighboring kingdoms and strengthened the empire.

4. Administration

• The empire was governed by a well-organized administrative system.
• Provinces were administered by royal officials and local governors.
• Efficient revenue collection helped maintain a strong government.
• Law and order were effectively maintained throughout the kingdom.

5. Economy

• Agriculture was the backbone of the economy.
• Irrigation facilities such as tanks, canals, and reservoirs were developed.
• Trade and commerce flourished during this period.
• Important goods traded included:- Spices, Textiles, Precious stones, Horses
• The empire had trade relations with foreign countries.

6. Society and Culture

• Society was prosperous and culturally rich.
• Different communities lived together peacefully.
• Education, literature, music, and dance received royal patronage.
• Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit literature flourished.

7. Art and Architecture

• The Vijayanagara rulers built magnificent temples and monuments.
• Architecture was characterized by:- Tall gopurams (gateway towers), Intricate carvings, Large temple complexes
• Temples served as religious and cultural centers.
• Important Monuments:- Virupaksha Temple (Hampi), Vittalaswami Temple (Hampi), 
• Stone chariots and musical pillars are famous examples of Vijayanagara architecture.

8. Hampi

• Hampi was the capital city of the empire.
• It was one of the richest and largest cities in the world during its time.
• Foreign travelers described Hampi as a prosperous and magnificent city.
• Today, Hampi is a major historical and archaeological site.

9. Decline of the Empire

• The empire declined after the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE).
• A coalition of Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara forces.
• The capital city was heavily damaged after the battle.
• Although the empire weakened, its cultural influence continued for many years.

10. Contributions of the Vijayanagara Empire

• Protected South India from foreign invasions for a long period.
• Promoted trade and economic prosperity.
• Encouraged literature and education.
• Developed remarkable temple architecture.
• Preserved and promoted Hindu culture and traditions.

The Bahamani Kingdoms (1347–Early 16th Century)

1. Foundation of the Bahamani Sultanate

• The Bahamani Sultanate was founded in 1347 CE.
• It was established by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah.
• He broke away from the Delhi Sultanate and founded the first independent Islamic kingdom in the Deccan region.
• The kingdom emerged as a major political power in South India.

2. Political Administration

• The Bahamani state followed a monarchical system.
• Provinces were administered by governors known as Tarafdars.
• Internal conflicts often weakened the kingdom.
• Rivalry existed between:- Deccanis (local Muslims),  Afaqis (foreign nobles from Persia and Central Asia)

3. Mahmud Gawan and His Reforms

• Mahmud Gawan was one of the most important ministers of the Bahamani Sultanate.
• He introduced several administrative reforms.
• He reorganized provinces for better governance.
• He strengthened the revenue system.
• His reforms reduced the power of the nobles.
• Due to court conspiracies and intrigues, he was executed.
• After his death, the kingdom gradually weakened.

4. Decline of the Bahamani Kingdom:- By the early 16th century, the Bahamani Sultanate broke into five independent Deccan Sultanates:- Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar

• These successor states became powerful regional kingdoms.

5. Conflict with Vijayanagara Empire

• The Bahamani rulers were in continuous conflict with the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Sometimes the Deccan Sultanates fought separately and sometimes together.
• In 1565 CE, they united against Vijayanagara in the Battle of Talikota.
• The Vijayanagara Empire suffered a major defeat.
• The city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) was plundered and destroyed.
• Although weakened, the empire survived for some time afterward.

6. Culture and Society

• The Bahamani rulers promoted Indo-Persian culture in the Deccan.
• Persian traditions were blended with local Indian traditions.
• Persian became the language of the royal court.
• The kingdom became an important centre of learning and culture.
• Literature, poetry, calligraphy, and music received royal patronage.

7. Art and Architecture

Bahamani architecture combined:

• Persian styles
• Indian building traditions

Architectural features included:

• Large domes
• Arches
• Intricate decorative work

Important Monuments

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (Bidar)

• Built by Mahmud Gawan.
• Served as a famous centre of education.
• Attracted scholars from Iran and Central Asia.

Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur)

• Famous for its massive dome.
• Demonstrates advanced engineering and architectural skills.
• One of the most important monuments of the Deccan region.

8. Economy

• Agriculture was the main occupation.
• Land revenue was the chief source of state income.
• The fertile black soil of the Deccan Plateau supported cultivation of:- Cotton, Millets, Pulses
• Irrigation projects increased agricultural productivity.

9. Trade and Commerce

• Trade expanded due to the kingdom's strategic location.
• The Bahamani Kingdom connected northern India with Arabian Sea ports.
• Horses were imported from:- Central Asia, Arabia
• Textiles and agricultural products were exported.
• Commercial centres developed in:- Gulbarga, Bidar
• Standardized coinage promoted trade and economic growth.

10. Importance of Mahmud Gawan's Reforms

• Improved administration.
• Strengthened revenue collection.
• Reduced noble interference in governance.
• Encouraged systematic land measurement.
• Increased efficiency in managing the kingdom.

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