Worksheet Chapter: 5 Later Medieval India

 Worksheet

Chapter: 5 Later Medieval India

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions (1 Mark Each)

Who founded the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty?

a) Iltutmish

b) Balban

c) Qutb-ud-din Aibak

d) Razia Sultan

The first woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was:

a) Nur Jahan

b) Razia Sultan

c) Chand Bibi

d) Jahanara

Which ruler followed the policy of "Blood and Iron"?

a) Balban

b) Akbar

c) Babur

d) Alauddin Khalji

The First Battle of Panipat was fought in:

a) 1525

b) 1526

c) 1556

d) 1565

Who introduced the Mansabdari System?

a) Babur

b) Humayun

c) Akbar

d) Jahangir

The capital of the Vijayanagara Empire was:

a) Gulbarga

b) Delhi

c) Hampi

d) Agra

The Bahamani Sultanate was founded by:

a) Mahmud Gawan

b) Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah

c) Ibrahim Lodi

d) Firuz Shah

Gol Gumbaz is located in:

a) Bidar

b) Bijapur

c) Gulbarga

d) Golconda

Persian became the official language during:

a) Delhi Sultanate

b) Mauryan Empire

c) Gupta Empire

d) Chola Empire

Which Mughal ruler wrote the Baburnama?

a) Akbar

b) Humayun

c) Babur

d) Jahangir

Section B: Fill in the Blanks

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the __________ Dynasty.
• Razia Sultan was the daughter of __________.
• The capital of Muhammad bin Tughlaq was shifted to __________.
• Akbar abolished the __________ tax in 1564.
• The Mahabharata was translated into Persian as __________.
• Vijayanagara means __________.
• Krishna Deva Raya ruled from __________ to __________.
• Governors in the Bahamani Kingdom were known as __________.
• The famous educational centre built by Mahmud Gawan was the __________.
• Gol Gumbaz is famous for its massive __________.

Section C: Match the Following

Column A                         Column B

1. Babur                                 a. Gol Gumbaz

2. Mahmud Gawan                 b. Mansabdari System

3. Akbar                                 c. Baburnama

4. Bijapur                         d. Madrasa at Bidar

5. Krishna Deva Raya         e. Golden Age of Vijayanagara

Section D: True or False

• Iltutmish was the son of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. ______
• Balban strengthened the authority of the Sultan. ______
• Babur defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa. ______
• Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. ______
• Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal. ______
• Hampi was the capital of the Bahamani Kingdom. ______
• Persian was the court language of the Bahamani rulers. ______
• Mahmud Gawan introduced administrative reforms. ______
• The Battle of Talikota was fought in 1565 CE. ______
• Agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy. ______

Section E: Assertion–Reason

Assertion (A): Akbar introduced the Mansabdari System.

Reason (R): It helped organize military and civil administration.

Assertion (A): Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted the capital to Daulatabad.

Reason (R): The experiment was completely successful.

Assertion (A): Mahmud Gawan is remembered as an able administrator.

Reason (R): He introduced revenue and provincial reforms.

Assertion (A): Persian became an important language during the Delhi Sultanate.

Reason (R): Persian was used in administration and courts.

Assertion (A): The Battle of Talikota weakened the Vijayanagara Empire.

Reason (R): The Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara.

• Section F: Very Short Answer Questions 
• Who founded the Delhi Sultanate?
• Why is Razia Sultan famous?
• What was Balban's "Blood and Iron" policy?
• Name any two battles fought by Babur.
• What is Sulh-i-Kul?
• Who was Raja Todar Mal?
• Name two monuments built by Shah Jahan.
• Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
• What were Iqtas?
• Name any two Deccan Sultanates formed after the Bahamani Kingdom.

Section G: Short Answer Questions

• Describe the achievements of Iltutmish.
• Explain the administrative reforms of Mahmud Gawan.
• Write a note on Akbar's religious policy.
• Explain the Mansabdari System.
• Describe the importance of Hampi.
• Explain the causes of the decline of the Bahamani Kingdom.
• Discuss the role of Persian in the Delhi Sultanate.
• How did trade contribute to the economy of the Mughal Empire?

Section H: Long Answer Questions

• Explain the rise and achievements of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Describe the administration and economy of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Discuss the major achievements of Akbar.
• Explain the cultural and architectural contributions of the Bahamani Kingdom.
• Describe the development of art, architecture, language, and literature under the Mughals.

Section I: Case-Based Study Questions

Case Study – 1

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. It became a powerful kingdom in South India. Krishna Deva Raya was its greatest ruler and his reign is considered the Golden Age of the empire. Agriculture, trade, literature, and architecture flourished during this period. Hampi, the capital city, became one of the richest cities in the world. The empire declined after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE.

Questions:

• Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
• Why is Krishna Deva Raya remembered?
• What was the capital city of the empire?
• Which battle led to its decline?

Case Study – 2

The Bahamani Sultanate was founded in 1347 CE by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah. It became the first independent Islamic kingdom in the Deccan. Mahmud Gawan introduced important administrative and revenue reforms. Persian culture greatly influenced the kingdom. The Bahamani rulers built remarkable monuments such as the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa and Gol Gumbaz. Agriculture and trade formed the backbone of the economy.

Questions:

• Who founded the Bahamani Sultanate?
• What reforms were introduced by Mahmud Gawan?
• Name two famous monuments of the Bahamani period.
• What was the chief source of income?

Case Study – 3

Akbar was one of the greatest Mughal rulers. He introduced the Mansabdari System and divided the empire into Subas. He followed the policy of Sulh-i-Kul and abolished the pilgrimage tax and Jizya tax. Akbar encouraged art, literature, and architecture. Under his patronage, Fatehpur Sikri and Buland Darwaza were built. His court included famous scholars and artists known as the Navratnas.

Questions:

• What was the Mansabdari System?
• What is meant by Sulh-i-Kul?
• Name two buildings associated with Akbar.
• Who were the Navratnas?

Section J: HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

• Why was Akbar's policy of Sulh-i-Kul important for maintaining peace in a diverse empire?
• Compare the administrative systems of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.
• If Mahmud Gawan had not been executed, how might the history of the Bahamani Kingdom have been different?
• Explain how trade contributed to the prosperity of both the Vijayanagara and Mughal Empires.
• Architecture often reflects the culture of a kingdom. Explain this statement with examples from the Delhi Sultanate, Mughals, Vijayanagara, and Bahamani Kingdoms.

Answer Key

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions

• c) Qutb-ud-din Aibak
• b) Razia Sultan
• a) Balban
• b) 1526
• c) Akbar
• c) Hampi
• b) Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah
• b) Bijapur
• a) Delhi Sultanate
• c) Babur

Section B: Fill in the Blanks

• Mamluk (Slave)
• Iltutmish
• Daulatabad
• Jizya
• Razmnama
• City of Victory
• 1509 CE, 1529 CE
• Tarafdars
• Mahmud Gawan Madrasa
• Dome

Section C: Match the Following

• Babur → c. Baburnama
• Mahmud Gawan → d. Madrasa at Bidar
• Akbar → b. Mansabdari System
• Bijapur → a. Gol Gumbaz
• Krishna Deva Raya → e. Golden Age of Vijayanagara

Section D: True or False

• False
• True
• True
• True
• True
• False
• True
• True
• True
• True

Section E: Assertion–Reason

1.

Assertion – True

Reason – True

Reason correctly explains Assertion.

2.

Assertion – True

Reason – False

(The capital shift was not successful and was later abandoned.)

3.

Assertion – True

Reason – True

Reason correctly explains Assertion.

4.

Assertion – True

Reason – True

Reason correctly explains Assertion.

5.

Assertion – True

Reason – True

Reason correctly explains Assertion.

Section F: Very Short Answer Questions

1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE.

2. Razia Sultan was the first woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.

3. Balban's "Blood and Iron" policy was a strict policy used to maintain law and order and suppress rebellions.

4. First Battle of Panipat, Battle of Khanwa

5.Sulh-i-Kul means "Universal Peace" and promoted religious tolerance.

6. Raja Todar Mal was Akbar's finance minister who introduced land revenue reforms.

7. Taj Mahal, Red Fort

8. Harihara I and Bukka Raya I founded the Vijayanagara Empire.

9. Iqtas were territories assigned to officers instead of cash salaries.

10. Any two:- Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar

Section G: Short Answer Questions

1. Achievements of Iltutmish

Consolidated the Delhi Sultanate.

Defeated rival Turkish nobles.

Strengthened central administration.

2. Administrative Reforms of Mahmud Gawan

Reorganized provinces.

Improved revenue collection.

Reduced the power of nobles.

Strengthened administration.

3. Akbar's Religious Policy

Followed Sulh-i-Kul.

Promoted religious tolerance.

Abolished pilgrimage and Jizya taxes.

Encouraged harmony among different communities.

4. Mansabdari System

Introduced by Akbar.

Mansab means rank or position.

Mansabdars served as military and civil officers.

They maintained soldiers for the emperor.

5. Importance of Hampi

Capital of Vijayanagara Empire.

Major centre of trade and culture.

One of the richest cities of its time.

Famous for temples and monuments.

6. Causes of Decline of the Bahamani Kingdom

Internal rivalries between Deccanis and Afaqis.

Weak rulers after Mahmud Gawan.

Court conspiracies.

Division into five Deccan Sultanates.

7. Role of Persian in the Delhi Sultanate

Official language of administration.

Used in courts and records.

Influenced the development of Urdu.

Encouraged Persian literature.

8. Trade and the Mughal Economy

Promoted economic prosperity.

Encouraged inland and overseas trade.

Exported textiles, silk, jewellery, and spices.

Commercial cities flourished.

Section H: Long Answer Questions

1. Rise and Achievements of the Vijayanagara Empire

Founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.

Capital was Hampi.

Reached its peak under Krishna Deva Raya.

Developed agriculture, trade, literature, and architecture.

Protected South India and promoted Hindu culture.

2. Administration and Economy of the Delhi Sultanate

Sultan was the supreme ruler.

Wazir managed finance.

Ariz-i-Mamalik headed the army.

Qazi administered justice.

Iqta system managed revenue.

Agriculture and trade were the main economic activities.

3. Achievements of Akbar

Expanded the Mughal Empire.

Introduced the Mansabdari System.

Followed Sulh-i-Kul.

Abolished pilgrimage and Jizya taxes.

Built Fatehpur Sikri and Buland Darwaza.

Encouraged art and literature.

4. Cultural and Architectural Contributions of the Bahamani Kingdom

Promoted Indo-Persian culture.

Persian became the court language.

Built Mahmud Gawan Madrasa.

Constructed Gol Gumbaz.

Encouraged literature, music, and education.

5. Art, Architecture, Language and Literature under the Mughals

Developed Mughal painting.

Encouraged music and fine arts.

Built Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid.

Persian remained the official language.

Promoted Urdu and regional languages.

Important writers included Abul Fazl and Faizi.

Section I: Case-Based Study Answers

Case Study 1

• Harihara I and Bukka Raya I
• He was the greatest ruler and led the Golden Age of the empire.
• Hampi
• Battle of Talikota (1565 CE)

Case Study 2

• Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah
• Administrative and revenue reforms.
• Mahmud Gawan Madrasa and Gol Gumbaz
• Land revenue

Case Study 3

• A ranking system for military and civil officers.
• Universal Peace and religious tolerance.
• Fatehpur Sikri and Buland Darwaza
• The Nine Gems (group of scholars and artists in Akbar's court)

Section J: HOTS Answers

1. Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul promoted equality and religious tolerance, helping maintain peace and unity in a diverse empire.

2. Delhi Sultanate used the Iqta System, while the Mughals used the Mansabdari System. The Mughal administration was more organized and systematic.

3. Mahmud Gawan's continued reforms could have strengthened administration, reduced factional conflicts, and possibly delayed the breakup of the Bahamani Kingdom.

4. Trade increased wealth, encouraged urban growth, connected foreign markets, and boosted economic prosperity in both empires.

5. Architecture reflects culture because rulers expressed their beliefs and artistic tastes through monuments. Examples include:

• Qutb Minar (Delhi Sultanate)
• Taj Mahal (Mughals)
• Virupaksha Temple (Vijayanagara)
• Gol Gumbaz (Bahamani Kingdom)

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Chapter 5: Later Medieval India

 Chapter 5: Later Medieval India 

(Political History)

The Delhi Sultanate – Qutb-ud-din Aibak

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210 CE)

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty, the first ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
• He was originally a Turkic slave who later became a trusted general of Muhammad Ghori.
• After Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206 CE, Aibak declared himself the ruler and established independent rule in India, laying the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate.
• He ruled from 1206 to 1210 CE.

Iltutmish (1211–1236 CE):- Shams ud-Din Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and became Sultan after a period of political instability.

Achievements:

• Consolidated the Delhi Sultanate.
• Defeated rival Turkish nobles and strengthened central authority.

2. Razia Sultan (1236–1240 CE):- Razia Sultan was the daughter of Iltutmish and the first woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Iltutmish nominated Razia as his successor because he considered her more capable than his sons.
• After Iltutmish's death, her brother Rukn-ud-din Firuz became Sultan.
• Razia later defeated her brother's supporters and became Sultan in 1236 CE.
• She ruled for about 4 years (1236–1240 CE).
• She faced opposition from Turkish nobles and was eventually defeated and killed in 1240 CE.

Ghiyas ud-Din Balban (1266–1287 CE):- Ghiyas ud-Din Balban belonged to the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty.

Achievements:

• Strengthened the monarchy and made the Sultan's authority supreme.
• Followed the policy of "Blood and Iron" to maintain law and order.
• Crushed rebellions and protected the empire from Mongol invasions.
• Improved administration and military organization.

Jalal-ud-Din Khalji (1290–1296 CE):- Jalal-ud-Din Khalji founded the Khalji Dynasty.

• He overthrew the last weak ruler of the Mamluk Dynasty and established the Khalji Dynasty in 1290 CE.
• Reign: 1290–1296 CE (6 years)
• He was murdered in 1296 CE by his ambitious nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khalji.
• His reign was relatively peaceful compared to later rulers.
• He focused more on maintaining stability than large-scale conquests.
• He consolidated his power in north by conquering Gujrat in 1299, Ranthambhor in  1301 and Chittor in 1303.
• He sent military expeditions to the south under Malik Kafur and subjugated Warrangal, Dwarasamudra, Mabar and Madurai. 1309-1311.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE):-  Alauddin's successors were weak and the last ruler of the dynasty was deposed by a prominent noble named Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq was one of the most famous rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty.
• He ruled from Delhi and controlled a vast empire extending across much of North and Central India and parts of the Deccan.
• Shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (later abandoned).
• Introduced token currency (which failed).
• Planned ambitious military campaigns.
• Tughlaqs were succeeded by the Sayyids and then the Lodi
• Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. 
• Battle of Panipat 1526:- in this battle Lodhi was defeated by Babur  and he founded the Mughal Dynasty.

The Mughals

1. Babur (1526–1530 CE)

• How he became ruler
• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.
• This victory established the Mughal Empire in India.

Important Battles

• First Battle of Panipat (against Ibrahim Lodi)
• Battle of Khanwa (against Rana Sanga)
• Battle of Ghaghra

Region under him:- Delhi, Agra, Punjab, and parts of North India.

Administration:- Laid the foundation of Mughal administration.

Known for

• Introduction of gunpowder warfare.
• Wrote his autobiography, Baburnama.

Humayun (1530–1540 CE, 1555–1556 CE)

• Succeeded Babur in 1530 CE.
• Lost his empire to Sher Shah Suri in 1540 CE.
• Regained the throne in 1555 CE.

Region under him:- Northern India and Delhi after restoration.

Known for:- Re-establishing Mughal rule after years of exile.

Architecture:- His tomb in Delhi, Humayun's Tomb, is considered a masterpiece of Mughal architecture.

3. Akbar (1556–1605 CE)

Important Battles

• Second Battle of Panipat
• Conquest of Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Sindh, and parts of the Deccan.
• Region under him:- Most of North India, Central India, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, and parts of the Deccan.
• Administration:- Introduced the Mansabdari System.
• Divided the empire into provinces called Subas.
• Appointed governors and officials for efficient administration.

Tax System

• Abolished pilgrimage tax in 1563 and the jizya tax 1564.
• Revenue reforms introduced by Raja Todar Mal.
• Land revenue was assessed systematically.

Known for

• Religious tolerance.
• Policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).
• Formation of the Navratnas (Nine Gems).

Architecture

• Fatehpur Sikri
• Buland Darwaza

4. Jahangir (1605–1627 CE)

• Region under him:- Inherited Akbar's vast empire.
• Administration:- Continued Akbar's administrative system.
• Known for:- Love of art and painting., Justice and fair administration.
• The famous Chain of Justice (Zanjir-i-Adl), allowing subjects to seek justice directly.

Architecture

• Development of Mughal painting.
• Construction of beautiful gardens and monuments.

Conflicts

• Faced rebellion from his son Prince Khurram.
• Faced tensions with some Sikh groups after the execution of Guru Arjan Dev.

5. Shah Jahan (1628–1658 CE)

• Region under him:- Mughal Empire reached great prosperity and stability.
• Administration:- Continued Akbar's administrative framework.
• Known for:- The Golden Age of Mughal architecture.
• Architecture:- Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid
• Conflicts:- Faced succession disputes among his sons toward the end of his reign.

6. Aurangzeb (1658–1707 CE)

Region under him

• Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial extent.
• Included most of the Indian subcontinent.

Administration

• Strong central control.
• Long military campaigns in the Deccan.

Tax:- Reimposed the Jizya tax on non-Muslims.

Known for

• Expansion of the empire.
• Strict interpretation of Islamic law.

Conflicts Leading to Tensions

• Long wars against the Marathas.
• Conflicts with some Rajput rulers.
• Tensions with Sikh groups.
• Deccan campaigns weakened imperial finances.

Architecture

• Badshahi Mosque (built during his reign)
• Bibi Ka Maqbara

Development of Art, Architecture, Language and Literature under 

The Delhi Sultanate:- The Delhi Sultans introduced the Indo-Islamic style of architecture, which combined Indian and Persian architectural features.

Main Features

• Use of arches, domes, and minarets.
• Decorative calligraphy and geometric designs.
• Construction of mosques, tombs, forts, and madrasas.
• Extensive use of red sandstone and marble.

Important Monuments

Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty

• Qutb Minar – begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and completed by Shams ud-Din Iltutmish.
• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque.

Khalji Dynasty

• Alai Darwaza built by Alauddin Khalji.
• The Hauz Khas built by Alauddin Khalji.

Tughlaq Dynasty

• Tughlaqabad Fort built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Lodi Dynasty

• Lodi Gardens contains several Lodi-period tombs.

Development of Language

• Persian became the official language of administration and courts.
• Arabic was used mainly for religious studies.
• Interaction between Persian-speaking rulers and local people led to the development of Urdu.
• Urdu evolved from a mixture of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local Indian languages.

Importance of Urdu

• Became a popular language for communication.
• Later developed into an important literary language.

Development of Literature

Persian Literature:- Many scholars, historians, and poets received royal patronage.

Important Writers:- Amir Khusrau

• Known as the "Parrot of India."
• Wrote poetry in Persian.
• Contributed to the development of Hindavi (early Hindi/Urdu).
• Also contributed to music and cultural traditions.

Ziauddin Barani:- Wrote important historical works on the Delhi Sultanate.

Religious Literature

• Islamic scholars wrote books on theology, law, and philosophy.
• Sufi saints spread spiritual teachings through poetry and literature.

The Mughals

1. Development of Art:- Mughal Paintings

• The Mughals greatly encouraged painting and fine arts.
• Mughal paintings combined Persian, Indian, and Central Asian styles.
• Paintings depicted court life, battles, hunting scenes, nature, and portraits.

Important Patrons

• Akbar established a royal painting workshop.
• Jahangir was especially fond of painting and nature studies.
• During Jahangir's reign, Mughal painting reached its highest level.
• The imperial Karkhanas (workshop) patronised painters

Music

• Music flourished under the Mughals.
• Tansen was one of the greatest musicians of Akbar's court.

Development of Architecture:- The Mughals developed a unique architectural style by combining Indian, Persian, and Islamic elements. hey perfect in Indo-Islamic style by combing Pesion symmetry 

Features of Mughal Architecture

• Large domes
• Charbagh (four fold garden)
• Beautiful gardens
• Arches and minarets
• Delicate marble work
• Intricate carvings and inlay decoration
• Symmetrical designs

Architecture reached its peak under Shah Jahan, where balance,proportion, and ornamentation achieved classical perfection.

Important Buildings

Under Babur

• Nishat Bagh inKsahmir,
• The Shalimar in Lahore

Under Humayun

• Humayun's Tomb

Under Akbar

• Fatehpur Sikri
• Buland Darwaza
• Agra Fort

Under Jahangir

• Development of gardens and decorative arts.
• Shalimar Bagh

Under Shah Jahan

• Taj Mahal
• Red Fort
• Jama Masjid
• Moti MAsjid (Agra)

Under Aurangzeb

• Bibi Ka Maqbara
• Badshahi Mosque

Development of Language

• Persian remained the official language of the Mughal court and administration.
• Growth of regional languages such as Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, and Telugu.
• Urdu developed further through the interaction of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local Indian languages.

Importance

• Urdu became a popular language of communication and literature.
• Many Persian works were translated into regional languages.

Development of Literature

Under Akbar

• Many Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian.
• The Mahabharata was translated into Persian as Razmnama.

Important Writers

Abul Fazl

• Wrote Akbarnama.
• Wrote Ain-i-Akbari, which describes Akbar's administration, economy, and society.

Faizi

• Famous Persian poet and scholar.

Abdul Hamid Lahori

• Wrote Padshahnama.

Jahangir's Contribution

• Wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.

Economic and Government

The Delhi Sultanate

A. Government and Administration:- The Delhi Sultanate had a centralized administration headed by the Sultan.

Important Officials

1. Sultan:- 

• The supreme ruler of the empire.
• Controlled administration, army, justice, and revenue.

2. Wazir

• The chief minister of the Sultan.
• Looked after finance and administration.

3. Ariz-i-Mamalik

• Head of the military department.
• Recruited soldiers and maintained army records.

4. Qazi

• Chief judicial officer.
• Administered justice according to Islamic law.

B. Iqta System

Iqta:- An Iqta was a territory assigned to an officer instead of paying a salary in cash.

Iqtadar

• The officer who managed an Iqta.
• Collected revenue from the area.
• Maintained troops and ensured law and order.
• Sent part of the revenue to the Sultan.

C. Economic System

Agriculture

• Main occupation of the people.
• Farmers paid land revenue to the state.

Trade and Commerce

• Internal and overseas trade flourished.
• Roads and markets encouraged commercial activities.

Important Commercial Centres

• Delhi
• Central Asia
• Lahore
• Multan
• Cambay (Khambhat)
• Sonargaon

Main Goods Traded

• Textiles
• Spices
• Horses
• Precious stones
• Metal goods

The Mughal Empire

A. Government and Administration:- The Mughal Empire had a well-organized administrative structure.

1. Emperor:- Supreme authority.

• Controlled administration, military, and justice.

2. Wazir:- Chief Minister.

• Supervised finance and revenue.

3. Mir Bakshi:- Head of the military department.

• Maintained records of soldiers and Mansabdars.

4. Sadr-us-Sudur (Sudur):-Head of religious and charitable affairs.

• Managed grants and religious institutions.

Provincial Administration:- The empire was divided into administrative units.

Suba

• Largest provincial unit.
• Governed by a Subadar.

Sarkar

• District-level administrative unit.

Pargana

• Smaller unit under a Sarkar.
• Consisted of several villages.

Village

• Basic unit of administration.

Mansabdari System:- Introduced by Akbar.

Mansab

• Means rank or position.

Mansabdars

• Military and civil officers.
• Received rank according to status and responsibilities.
• Maintained soldiers for the emperor.

D. Agrarian Economy and Land Revenue

Agriculture

• Backbone of the Mughal economy.
• Most people were farmers.

Land Revenue

• Main source of state income.
• Collected from agricultural production.

Revenue Reforms

• Introduced under Akbar by Raja Todar Mal.
• Land measured carefully.
• Revenue assessed systematically.

E. Trade and Manufacturing

Manufactured Goods

• Cotton textiles
• Silk fabrics
• Carpets
• Metalware
• Jewellery
• Paper

Trade

• Extensive inland and overseas trade.
• Indian goods were exported to Asia, Africa, and Europe.

F. Important Commercial Cities:- Major Trade Centres

• Agra
• Delhi
• Lahore
• Ahmedabad
• Surat:- Major port city. Connected India with West Asia and Europe.
• Patna

Regional Kingdoms: 

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1529 CE)

1. Establishment of the Empire

• The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE.
• It was established by two brothers:- Harihara I,  Bukka Raya I
• The empire was founded on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.
• It emerged as a strong Hindu kingdom in South India.

2. Meaning of Vijayanagara

• The word Vijayanagara means "City of Victory."
• The capital city was Vijayanagara (Hampi).

3. Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529 CE)

• Krishna Deva Raya was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• His reign is considered the Golden Age of the empire.
• He was a strong military leader and an efficient administrator.
• He expanded the empire through successful military campaigns.
• He defeated neighboring kingdoms and strengthened the empire.

4. Administration

• The empire was governed by a well-organized administrative system.
• Provinces were administered by royal officials and local governors.
• Efficient revenue collection helped maintain a strong government.
• Law and order were effectively maintained throughout the kingdom.

5. Economy

• Agriculture was the backbone of the economy.
• Irrigation facilities such as tanks, canals, and reservoirs were developed.
• Trade and commerce flourished during this period.
• Important goods traded included:- Spices, Textiles, Precious stones, Horses
• The empire had trade relations with foreign countries.

6. Society and Culture

• Society was prosperous and culturally rich.
• Different communities lived together peacefully.
• Education, literature, music, and dance received royal patronage.
• Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit literature flourished.

7. Art and Architecture

• The Vijayanagara rulers built magnificent temples and monuments.
• Architecture was characterized by:- Tall gopurams (gateway towers), Intricate carvings, Large temple complexes
• Temples served as religious and cultural centers.
• Important Monuments:- Virupaksha Temple (Hampi), Vittalaswami Temple (Hampi), 
• Stone chariots and musical pillars are famous examples of Vijayanagara architecture.

8. Hampi

• Hampi was the capital city of the empire.
• It was one of the richest and largest cities in the world during its time.
• Foreign travelers described Hampi as a prosperous and magnificent city.
• Today, Hampi is a major historical and archaeological site.

9. Decline of the Empire

• The empire declined after the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE).
• A coalition of Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara forces.
• The capital city was heavily damaged after the battle.
• Although the empire weakened, its cultural influence continued for many years.

10. Contributions of the Vijayanagara Empire

• Protected South India from foreign invasions for a long period.
• Promoted trade and economic prosperity.
• Encouraged literature and education.
• Developed remarkable temple architecture.
• Preserved and promoted Hindu culture and traditions.

The Bahamani Kingdoms (1347–Early 16th Century)

1. Foundation of the Bahamani Sultanate

• The Bahamani Sultanate was founded in 1347 CE.
• It was established by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah.
• He broke away from the Delhi Sultanate and founded the first independent Islamic kingdom in the Deccan region.
• The kingdom emerged as a major political power in South India.

2. Political Administration

• The Bahamani state followed a monarchical system.
• Provinces were administered by governors known as Tarafdars.
• Internal conflicts often weakened the kingdom.
• Rivalry existed between:- Deccanis (local Muslims),  Afaqis (foreign nobles from Persia and Central Asia)

3. Mahmud Gawan and His Reforms

• Mahmud Gawan was one of the most important ministers of the Bahamani Sultanate.
• He introduced several administrative reforms.
• He reorganized provinces for better governance.
• He strengthened the revenue system.
• His reforms reduced the power of the nobles.
• Due to court conspiracies and intrigues, he was executed.
• After his death, the kingdom gradually weakened.

4. Decline of the Bahamani Kingdom:- By the early 16th century, the Bahamani Sultanate broke into five independent Deccan Sultanates:- Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar

• These successor states became powerful regional kingdoms.

5. Conflict with Vijayanagara Empire

• The Bahamani rulers were in continuous conflict with the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Sometimes the Deccan Sultanates fought separately and sometimes together.
• In 1565 CE, they united against Vijayanagara in the Battle of Talikota.
• The Vijayanagara Empire suffered a major defeat.
• The city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) was plundered and destroyed.
• Although weakened, the empire survived for some time afterward.

6. Culture and Society

• The Bahamani rulers promoted Indo-Persian culture in the Deccan.
• Persian traditions were blended with local Indian traditions.
• Persian became the language of the royal court.
• The kingdom became an important centre of learning and culture.
• Literature, poetry, calligraphy, and music received royal patronage.

7. Art and Architecture

Bahamani architecture combined:

• Persian styles
• Indian building traditions

Architectural features included:

• Large domes
• Arches
• Intricate decorative work

Important Monuments

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (Bidar)

• Built by Mahmud Gawan.
• Served as a famous centre of education.
• Attracted scholars from Iran and Central Asia.

Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur)

• Famous for its massive dome.
• Demonstrates advanced engineering and architectural skills.
• One of the most important monuments of the Deccan region.

8. Economy

• Agriculture was the main occupation.
• Land revenue was the chief source of state income.
• The fertile black soil of the Deccan Plateau supported cultivation of:- Cotton, Millets, Pulses
• Irrigation projects increased agricultural productivity.

9. Trade and Commerce

• Trade expanded due to the kingdom's strategic location.
• The Bahamani Kingdom connected northern India with Arabian Sea ports.
• Horses were imported from:- Central Asia, Arabia
• Textiles and agricultural products were exported.
• Commercial centres developed in:- Gulbarga, Bidar
• Standardized coinage promoted trade and economic growth.

10. Importance of Mahmud Gawan's Reforms

• Improved administration.
• Strengthened revenue collection.
• Reduced noble interference in governance.
• Encouraged systematic land measurement.
• Increased efficiency in managing the kingdom.

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Worksheet Chapter 4: Theme III – Building a Resilient India (1000–1700 CE) Early Medieval India (750–1200 CE)

 Worksheet

Chapter 4: Theme III – Building a Resilient India (1000–1700 CE)

Early Medieval India (750–1200 CE)

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions 

Who founded the Pala Empire?

a) Dharmapala

b) Devapala

c) Gopala

d) Mahipala

The Tripartite Struggle was fought for the control of:

a) Delhi

b) Kannauj

c) Pataliputra

d) Ujjain

Who founded the Rashtrakuta Empire?

a) Krishna I

b) Govinda III

c) Dantidurga

d) Amoghavarsha

Which ruler built the Kailasa Temple at Ellora?

a) Krishna I

b) Govinda III

c) Dhruva

d) Indra IV

Who founded the Imperial Chola Empire?

a) Rajaraja I

b) Rajendra I

c) Vijayalaya Chola

d) Krishna III

Rajaraja I conquered:

a) Gujarat

b) Bengal

c) Northern Sri Lanka

d) Punjab

Rajendra I assumed the title:

a) Chakravartin

b) Gangaikondachola

c) Vikramaditya

d) Maharajadhiraja

Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Somnath in:

a) 1018 CE

b) 1001 CE

c) 1025 CE

d) 1030 CE

The First Battle of Tarain was fought in:

a) 1190 CE

b) 1191 CE

c) 1192 CE

d) 1194 CE

Followers of Vishnu in the Bhakti Movement were called:

a) Nayanars

b) Alvars

c) Sufis

d) Jains

Section B: Fill in the Blanks 

• The capital of the Rashtrakutas was ____________.
• Dharmapala revived ____________ University.
• The Cholas captured ____________ in 850 CE.
• The famous temple at Ellora is the ____________ Temple.
• Mahmud of Ghazni defeated ____________ in 1001 CE.
• Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the ____________ Battle of Tarain.
• The tower above the sanctum in Dravidian temples is called ____________.
• The Nagara style temple tower is known as ____________.
• The Bhakti Movement originated in ____________ Nadu.
• Kabir emphasized devotion to ____________ God.

Section C: Match the Following 

Column A Column B

1. Gopala a. Kailasa Temple

2. Krishna I b. Founder of Pala Empire

3. Rajendra I c. Khajuraho

4. Chandelas d. Gangaikondachola

5. Kabir         e. Hindu-Muslim Unity

Section D: True or False 

• Kannauj was the center of the Tripartite Struggle. ( )
• Devapala was the founder of the Pala Empire. ( )
• Rajaraja I built the Brihadeeswara Temple. ( )
• Mahmud Ghazni aimed to establish permanent rule in India. ( )
• Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 CE. ( )
• The Cholas had a powerful navy. ( )
• Khajuraho temples were built by the Cholas. ( )
• Vikramashila was a Buddhist learning center. ( )
• Alvars were devotees of Shiva. ( )
• Kabir opposed caste discrimination. ( )

Section E: Assertion and Reason

Choose:

A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

B. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

C. A is true but R is false.

D. A is false but R is true.

Assertion: The Cholas became a dominant maritime power.

Reason: They possessed a strong navy and controlled trade routes.

Assertion: Kannauj was important during the early medieval period.

Reason: It was strategically located and economically prosperous.

Assertion: Mahmud Ghazni repeatedly invaded India.

Reason: His objective was mainly plunder and wealth.

Assertion: Bhakti reformers opposed caste discrimination.

Reason: They believed all humans were equal before God.

Assertion: Rajendra I was called Gangaikondachola.

Reason: He successfully campaigned up to the Ganga region.

Section F: Very Short Answer Questions 

• Who founded the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire?
• Name any two universities patronized by the Palas.
• Why was Kannauj important?
• Who built the Brihadeeswara Temple?
• Name any two Rajput dynasties.
• Who was Jayapala?
• What is a Gopuram?
• What is the meaning of Bhakti?
• Name two Bhakti saints.
• What was the Sabha in Chola administration?

Section G: Short Answer Questions 

• Write three achievements of the Pala Empire.
• Explain the significance of the Tripartite Struggle.
• Mention three achievements of Rajaraja I.
• Describe the naval strength of the Cholas.
• Write a short note on Mahmud Ghazni's invasions.
• Explain the importance of the Battles of Tarain.
• Describe the main features of Dravidian architecture.
• Write three features of Nagara architecture.
• Explain the role of Jain scholars in literature.
• State three teachings of the Bhakti Movement.

Section H: Long Answer Questions 

• Compare the Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta Empires.
• Explain the rise and expansion of the Chola Empire.
• Discuss the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni and their impact on India.
• Describe the development of temple architecture in North and South India.
• Explain the causes, teachings, and impact of the Bhakti Movement.

Section I: Case Study Based Questions

Case Study – 1: The Tripartite Struggle

The Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta Empires fought continuously for the control of Kannauj. Kannauj was strategically located and economically prosperous. Despite many battles, no dynasty could permanently control the city. The prolonged conflict weakened all three empires and eventually led to the rise of new regional kingdoms.

Questions

• Which three empires participated in the Tripartite Struggle?
• Why was Kannauj important?
• Did any empire achieve permanent control over Kannauj?
• What was the major result of the struggle?
• Name one ruler each from the Pala and Rashtrakuta dynasties.

Case Study – 2: Chola Naval Power

The Cholas developed one of the strongest navies in medieval India. Rajaraja I and Rajendra I expanded the empire through military campaigns. The Cholas defeated the Srivijaya Empire and promoted maritime trade. Their influence over the Bay of Bengal became so strong that it was often called a "Chola Lake."

Questions

• Which dynasty developed a powerful navy?
• Name two important Chola rulers.
• Which empire was defeated by the Cholas overseas?
• Why did the Cholas attack Srivijaya?
• How did naval power help the Chola Empire?

Case Study – 3: The Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti Movement emphasized personal devotion to God rather than elaborate rituals. It welcomed people of all castes and social backgrounds. Saints such as Ramanuja, Ramananda, and Kabir spread the message of devotion, equality, and brotherhood. The movement played an important role in reforming society.

Questions

• Where did the Bhakti Movement originate?
• Who were the Nayanars?
• Name any two Bhakti saints.
• What were the main teachings of the Bhakti Movement?
• How did the movement promote social equality?

Section J: HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills) Questions

• Why do you think Kannauj became the focus of conflict among three powerful empires?
• How did the Cholas use both military strength and trade to build their empire?
• Compare the objectives of Mahmud Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori. How were they different?
• Why are temples considered important sources for understanding medieval Indian society and culture?
• If you were a social reformer during the Bhakti Movement, what measures would you suggest to reduce caste discrimination and promote equality?

Answerkey

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions

• c) Gopala
• b) Kannauj
• c) Dantidurga
• a) Krishna I
• c) Vijayalaya Chola
• c) Northern Sri Lanka
• b) Gangaikondachola
• c) 1025 CE
• b) 1191 CE
• b) Alvars

Section B: Fill in the Blanks

• Manyakheta (Malkhed)
• Nalanda
• Thanjavur
• Kailasa
• Jayapala
• Second
• Vimana
• Shikhara
• Tamil
• One

Section C: Match the Following

• Gopala — b
• Krishna I — a
• Rajendra I — d
• Chandelas — c
• Kabir — e

Section D: True or False

• True
• False
• True
• False
• True
• True
• False
• True
• False
• True

Section E: Assertion and Reason

• A
• A
• A
• A
• A

Section F: Very Short Answers

• Nagabhata I
• Nalanda University and Vikramashila University
• It was a rich, strategic and politically important city.
• Rajaraja I
• Gahadavala Dynasty and Chahamana (Chauhan) Dynasty
• He was the Hindu Shahi ruler of Punjab.
• A monumental entrance gateway of a South Indian temple.
• Devotion to God.
• Ramanuja and Kabir.
• An assembly of Brahmanas in Agrahara villages.

Section G: Short Answers

1.

• Promoted Buddhism.
• Patronized Nalanda and Vikramashila Universities.
• Encouraged art, sculpture and learning.

• 2.
• It was fought for control of Kannauj.
• Involved Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas.
• Weakened all three empires and led to the rise of regional kingdoms.

3.

• Conquered northern Sri Lanka.
• Captured the Maldives.
• Expanded Chola territory and strengthened administration.

4.

• Cholas had a powerful navy.
• Defeated the Srivijaya Empire.
• Promoted overseas trade with China and Southeast Asia.

5.

• Mahmud invaded India repeatedly.
• Defeated Jayapala and Anandapala.
• Looted rich cities and temples including Somnath.

6.

• First Battle of Tarain (1191): Prithviraj defeated Ghori.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Ghori defeated Prithviraj.
• Opened the way for Turkish rule in North India.

7.

• Pyramid-shaped Vimana.
• Large temple complexes and Mandapas.
• Massive Gopurams and detailed carvings.

8.

• Tall curving Shikhara.
• Presence of Mandapa.
• Rich stone carvings and sculptures.

9.

• Wrote literature in regional languages.
• Preserved Prakrit and Apabhramsha traditions.
• Contributed to the development of modern Indian languages.

10.

• Belief in one God.
• Importance of devotion and Guru.
• Equality and brotherhood of all people.

Section H: Long Answers

1. The Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta Empires were the three major powers between 750–1000 CE. The Palas ruled Bengal and Bihar and promoted Buddhism. The Pratiharas ruled western and northern India and resisted Arab invasions. The Rashtrakutas ruled the Deccan and promoted literature and architecture. All three fought the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj. None gained permanent control, and all weakened over time.

2. The Chola Empire rose in the 9th century under Vijayalaya Chola, who captured Thanjavur. Rajaraja I expanded the empire by conquering Sri Lanka, the Maldives and neighboring kingdoms. Rajendra I continued expansion, reached the Ganga region and earned the title Gangaikondachola. The Cholas developed a powerful navy and promoted trade with China and Southeast Asia.

3.  Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India several times between 1001 and 1025 CE. He defeated Jayapala and Anandapala and attacked wealthy cities and temples. His most famous raid was on the Somnath Temple. These invasions caused political instability, destruction and economic losses in northern India.

4. South India followed the Dravidian style characterized by Vimanas, Mandapas and Gopurams. Important examples include Brihadeeswara Temple and Gangaikondacholapuram Temple. North India followed the Nagara style characterized by Shikharas and Mandapas. Important examples include Khajuraho, Lingaraja Temple, Konark Sun Temple and Jagannath Temple.

5. The Bhakti Movement arose due to rigid caste divisions, complex rituals, the influence of Islam and Sufism. It emphasized devotion to one God, equality, brotherhood and the importance of a Guru. Saints like Ramanuja, Ramananda and Kabir spread its teachings. The movement made religion accessible to common people and promoted social reform.

Section I: Case Study

Case Study 1

• Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta Empires.
• It was strategically located and economically prosperous.
• No.
• All three empires weakened and regional kingdoms emerged.
• Dharmapala and Krishna I.

Case Study 2

• Chola Dynasty.
• Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
• Srivijaya Empire.
• To remove trade obstacles and expand commerce.
• It helped expand territory and control maritime trade routes.

Case Study 3

• Tamil Nadu.
• Devotees of Shiva.
• Ramanuja and Kabir.
• Devotion to God, equality, brotherhood and importance of Guru.
• By accepting people of all castes and emphasizing equality before God.

Section J: HOTS

1. Kannauj was wealthy, strategically located and politically prestigious. Controlling it increased the power and influence of an empire.

2. The Cholas used a strong army and navy to conquer territories. They also encouraged overseas trade, which increased wealth and strengthened the empire.

3. Mahmud Ghazni mainly invaded India for wealth and plunder, whereas Muhammad Ghori aimed to establish political control and permanent rule.

4. Temples provide information about architecture, religion, art, economy and social life. They help historians understand medieval Indian culture.

5. I would promote equal rights, encourage education for all castes, reduce discrimination, and spread the message that all humans are equal before God.

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Chapter 4 Theme III: Building a Resilient India (1000–1700 CE) Early Medieval India (750–1000 CE)

 Chapter 4

Theme III: Building a Resilient India (1000–1700 CE)

Early Medieval India (750–1000 CE)

The Age of Three Empires

After the decline of Harsha, three powerful dynasties dominated northern and southern India between 750–1000 CE:

• Pala Empire
• Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
• Rashtrakuta Empire

These three powers constantly struggled for control of Kannauj, leading to the famous Tripartite Struggle.

1. PALA EMPIRE:- 

• Founder:- Gopala
• Founded around 750 CE
• Elected by local chiefs to restore order in Bengal.

Time Period

750 CE – 1174 CE (most powerful between 750–900 CE)

Region Under Their Control:- Present-day:- West Bengal,Bihar, Parts of Assam, Bangladesh, Sometimes parts of Odisha and Nepal

Important Rulers

Ruler                                             Period                                                                 Achievements

Gopala                                        750–770 CE                                            Founded the empire

Dharmapala                                770–810 CE Expanded empire; participated in Tripartite Struggle

Devapala (Son of Dharmapala)     810–850 CE                                     Empire reached greatest extent

Mahipala I                                 988–1038 CE                                     Revived declining empire

Madanapala                                 c.1144–1161 CE                             One of the last important rulers

Last Ruler:- Govindapala (traditionally considered the last ruler)

Major Achievements

• Promoted Buddhism.
• Patronized universities like:
• Nalanda University
• Vikramashila University
• Encouraged art, sculpture, and learning.
• Maintained trade relations with Southeast Asia.

Major Conflicts

• Fought the Gurjara-Pratiharas.
• Fought the Rashtrakutas.
• Participated in the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.

2. GURJARA-PRATIHARA EMPIRE

• Founder:- Nagabhata I
• Founded around 730 CE
• Time Period:- 730 CE – 1036 CE

Region Under Their Control

• Rajasthan
• Gujarat
• Madhya Pradesh
• Uttar Pradesh
• Haryana
• Parts of Punjab
• Capital:- Kannauj

Important Rulers

Ruler                     Period                                             Achievements

Nagabhata I            730–760 CE                         Founded empire; resisted Arab invasions

Vatsaraja                     775–805 CE                         Expanded territory

Nagabhata II             805–833 CE                         Captured Kannauj

Mihira Bhoja             836–885 CE                         Greatest ruler; expanded empire widely

Mahendrapala I     885–910 CE                         Further expansion

Last Ruler:- Yashpala

Major Achievements

• Stopped Arab expansion into north India.
• Made Kannauj a major political center.
• Encouraged Hindu culture and temple construction.
• Maintained strong cavalry forces.

Major Conflicts

• Fought the Palas.
• Fought the Rashtrakutas.
• Central participant in the Tripartite Struggle.

3. RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE

• Founder:- Dantidurga
• Founded around 753 CE
• Time Period:- 753 CE – 982 CE

Region Under Their Control

• Maharashtra
• Karnataka
• Telangana
• Andhra Pradesh
• Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
• Capital:- Manyakheta (Malkhed) in Maharashtra

Important Rulers

Ruler                     Period                                             Achievements

Dantidurga             753–756 CE                             Founded empire

Krishna I                     756–774 CE                             Built Kailasa Temple

Dhruva Dharavarsha 780–793 CE                             Defeated northern rivals

Govinda III                    793–814 CE                             Expanded empire greatly

Amoghavarsha I         814–878 CE                             Patron of literature and culture

Krishna III                 939–967 CE                             Last great ruler

Last Ruler:- Indra IV

Major Achievements

• Built the famous Kailasa Temple at Ellora Caves.
• Promoted Sanskrit and Kannada literature.
• Developed trade with Arab merchants.
• Controlled large parts of the Deccan.

Major Conflicts

• Fought the Palas.
• Fought the Pratiharas.
• Participated in the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (c. 8th–10th Century):- A three-sided conflict among:

• Pala Empire
• Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
• Rashtrakuta Empire

Cause:- Control of Kannauj, a rich and strategically important city.

Result

• No empire achieved permanent control.
• All three powers weakened over time.
• New regional kingdoms emerged after their decline.

The Chola Empire (900–1200 CE):- South India's Most Powerful Empire

The Cholas were one of the greatest dynasties of South India. They became the dominant power in southern India between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and established a vast empire on land and sea.

South India Before the Rise of the Cholas:- Between the 6th and 9th centuries CE, South India was dominated by:

• Pallava Dynasty in northern Tamil Nadu
• Pandya Dynasty in southern Tamil Nadu
• Chera Dynasty in Kerala
• Chalukya Dynasty in the Deccan region

Pulakesin II and Harsha

• Pulakesin II ruled in the 7th century CE (c. 610–642 CE).
• He successfully defeated Harsha on the banks of the Narmada River.
• This victory prevented Harsha from expanding into the Deccan.

Rise of the Chola Empire

• The Chola Empire rose during the 9th century CE.
• It became the most powerful kingdom in South India.
• The Cholas built a strong navy and dominated the Indian Ocean region.
• They conquered Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Founder of the Imperial Chola Empire

• Vijayalaya Chola founded the Imperial Chola Empire.
• In 850 CE, he captured Thanjavur (Tanjore) and made it his capital.

3. Expansion of the Chola Empire:- 

By the end of the 9th century:

• The Cholas defeated the Pallavas and Pandyas.
• The northern part of the Chola kingdom was annexed by Rashtrakuta king:- Krishna III 
• After the decline of the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas recovered and rebuilt their empire.

Greatest Chola Rulers:- Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE)

Achievements

• Expanded the Chola Empire greatly.
• Attacked Quilon (Kollam).
• Conquered Madurai.
• Defeated the Pandya ruler.
• Invaded northern Sri Lanka and annexed it.
• Captured the Maldives.Extended Chola control to Vengi and northeastern Karnataka.

Importance

• His reign marked the zenith (golden age) of the Chola Empire.
• Strengthened administration, military, and naval power.

Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE):- Achievements

• Continued his father's expansion policy.
• Defeated the Cheras and Pandyas.
• Completed the conquest of Sri Lanka.
• Captured royal insignia of the Sri Lankan king and queen.
• Ganga Campaign
• Led a successful expedition from Kalinga to Bengal.
• Defeated local rulers.
• Adopted the title:- "Gangaikondachola"(The Chola who conquered the Ganga)

Chola Naval Power

• The Cholas possessed one of the strongest navies in medieval India.
• They defeated the Srivijaya Empire.

Their objective was:

• To remove obstacles to Indian trade.
• To expand trade with China.
• The Bay of Bengal came under strong Chola influence and was often described as a "Chola Lake."

Trade and Relations with China

• The Cholas maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with China.
• They sent several embassies to China.
• In 1077 CE, a Chola embassy consisting of 77 merchants reached China.
• These missions promoted trade and cultural exchange.

Important Facts for Examination

Topic                                 Information

Period of Chola Empire         900–1200 CE

Founder                                 Vijayalaya Chola

Capital Captured                 Thanjavur (850 CE)

Greatest Rulers                 Rajaraja I and Rajendra I

Famous Title                         Gangaikondachola

Strongest Feature                 Powerful Navy

Conquered Regions         Sri Lanka, Maldives, Chera and Pandya territories

Foreign Relations                 China and Southeast Asia

Defeated Empire                 Srivijaya Empire

The Age of Conflict (1000–1200 CE) :- Introduction

• The period 1000–1200 CE is known as the Age of Conflict.
• During this time, northern India faced repeated invasions by Turkish rulers from Central Asia.
• These invasions led to political instability and the decline of several Indian kingdoms.

1. Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030 CE)

Rise to Power

• Mahmud of Ghazni became ruler of Ghazni in 998 CE.
• He launched numerous invasions into India.

Early Campaigns

• The first major resistance came from the Hindu Shahi rulers of Punjab.
• In 1001 CE, Mahmud defeated:- Jayapala
• Jayapala ceded territories west of the Indus River and later died.

Anangpal's Resistance

• Jayapala was succeeded by:- Anandapala
• In 1009 CE, Mahmud defeated Anandapala near the Indus.
• He destroyed the Hindu Shahi capital at Nandana.
• In 1015 CE, he plundered Lahore.

Invasions of North India:- After 1015 CE, Mahmud attacked the Indo-Gangetic plains.

His aim was mainly:

• Looting wealthy temples.
• Plundering rich cities and towns.

Important Raids

Year Place

1018 CE Kannauj

1025 CE Somnath (Gujarat)

Somnath Raid:- Somnath was a famous Shiva temple visited by thousands of pilgrims.

• The citizens resisted strongly.
• The temple was looted by Mahmud.

Death:- Mahmud of Ghazni died in 1030 CE.

2. Rise of Rajput Kingdoms:- After the decline of the Pratiharas, many Rajput kingdoms emerged.

Important Rajput                         Dynasties

Gahadavala Dynasty –                     Kannauj

Paramara Dynasty –                         Malwa

Chahamana Dynasty –                     Ajmer

Kalachuri Dynasty –                         Jabalpur region

Chaulukya Dynasty –                        Gujarat

Chandela Dynasty –                         Bundelkhand

Tomara Dynasty –                             Delhi

3. Muhammad Ghori (1173 CE onwards)

Rise to Power

• Muhammad Ghori became ruler of Ghazni in 1173 CE.
• Unlike Mahmud, his objective was to establish political control rather than merely loot wealth.

Early Conquests:- By 1190 CE he had captured:

• Peshawar
• Lahore
• Sialkot

4. Prithviraj Chauhan:-

• Growth of Chauhan Power
• Prithviraj Chauhan became one of the most powerful Rajput rulers.
• First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE)
• Fought between Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori.
• Prithviraj defeated Ghori.
• Ghori's forces retreated.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE)
• Muhammad Ghori returned with better planning and military strategy.
• Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated.
• This battle became a turning point in Indian history.

Consequences

• Opened the way for Turkish rule in North India.
• Marked the beginning of long-term Muslim political dominance in northern India.
• Fate of Prithviraj
• After his defeat in 1192 CE, Prithviraj lost power.
• Ghori further consolidated control over North India.

Chronological Timeline

Year                                                                                  Event

998 CE                                             Mahmud becomes ruler of Ghazni

1001 CE                                             Defeat of Jayapala

1009 CE                                             Defeat of Anandapala

1015 CE                                             Plunder of Lahore

1018 CE                                             Raid on Kannauj

1025 CE                                             Raid on Somnath

1030 CE                                             Death of Mahmud Ghazni

1173 CE                                             Muhammad Ghori becomes ruler

1191 CE                                             First Battle of Tarain

1192 CE                                             Second Battle of Tarain

1194 CE                                             Ghori defeats Jaichand

Development of Art, Architecture, Language and Literature

The Deccan and the South (800–1200 CE)

1. Education and Learning

• Nalanda and Vikramashila
• The Nalanda University remained a famous center of Buddhist learning.
• It was revived by Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty.
• Vikramashila University became another important center of education.
• Tibetan Buddhist monks came to these universities for higher studies.

Sanskrit Learning

• Sanskrit continued to flourish.
• Scholars, poets, and dramatists were patronized by kings.
• The Pratihara rulers of Kannauj encouraged literary activities.

Science and Mathematics:- Indian scholars contributed significantly to:

• Mathematics
• Astronomy
• Medicine
• Their knowledge spread to the Arab world.

2. Literature

• Rashtrakuta Patronage
• The Rashtrakutas were tolerant of different religions.

They supported:

• Shaivism
• Vaishnavism
• Jainism

Important Literary Figures

• Many Sanskrit scholars and poets flourished during their rule.
• Notable writers included:- Jinasena,  Gunabhadra
• Their works enriched Sanskrit literature.

Tamil Literature

• The Cholas encouraged literature in Tamil.
• The devotional hymns of:- Nayanars (Shaivite saints), Alvars (Vaishnavite saints)
• became very popular.

Kamban

• Kamban wrote the famous Kamba Ramayanam, a Tamil version of the Ramayana.
• It is considered a classic of Tamil literature.

3. Temple Architecture

• Dravidian Style
• South Indian temple architecture reached its peak during the Chola period.
• The dominant style was the Dravidian Style.

Features of Dravidian Temples

• Pyramid-shaped tower (Vimana)
• Large temple complexes
• Pillared halls (Mandapas)
• Elaborate carvings and sculptures
• Massive gateways (Gopurams)

Important Terms

• Vimana – Tower above the sanctum.
• Mandapa – Pillared hall used for religious gatherings.
• Gopuram – Monumental entrance gateway.

4. Important Temples

• Kailashnath Temple, Kanchipuram
• An important example of Dravidian architecture.
• Famous for its sculptures and artistic beauty.
• Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur

Built by Rajaraja I.

• One of the finest examples of Chola architecture.
• Known for its massive vimana and grand design.
• Gangaikondacholapuram Temple

Built by Rajendra I.

• Another outstanding example of Chola temple architecture.
• Hoysaleswara Temple
• Built by the Hoysalas.
• Famous for detailed carvings and sculptures.

5. Sculpture and Art

Chalukyan Art

• Chalukyan temples contain beautiful sculptural panels.
• Sculptures depict scenes from daily life and mythology.

Nataraja Sculpture:- The bronze image of Nataraja (Dancing Shiva) became famous during the Chola period. It represents:

• Creation
• Preservation
• Destruction
• Cosmic dance of Shiva

Chola Bronzes

• Chola craftsmen mastered bronze casting.
• Their sculptures are regarded among the finest achievements of Indian art.

North India (800–1200 CE)

1. Temple Architecture in North India

• Golden Age of Temple Building
• The period between the 10th and 12th centuries CE is considered the golden age of temple construction in North India.
• Many of the magnificent temples seen today were built during this period.
• Nagara Style of Architecture

Main Features

• Tall curving tower called Shikhara above the sanctum.
• Presence of a hall known as the Mandapa.
• Rich carvings and sculptures.
• Temples built mainly of stone.

2. Important Temples of North India

• Khajuraho Temples (Madhya Pradesh)
• Built by the Chandela Dynasty.
• Represent the finest examples of Nagara architecture.

Important Temples at Khajuraho

• Parsvanath Temple
• Vishwanath Temple
• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is considered one of the greatest achievements of medieval Indian architecture.

Temples of Odisha

Lingaraja Temple

• Located in Bhubaneswar.
• One of the most magnificent temples of the Nagara style.

Sun Temple

• Located at Konark Sun Temple.
• Famous for its chariot-shaped structure and intricate carvings.

Jagannath Temple

• Located in Puri.
• One of the most important pilgrimage centers in India.

3. Other Important Temple Centres:- Many famous temples were also built at:

• Mathura
• Varanasi
• Dilwara Temples

4. Literature and Learning:- Patronage of Rajput Rulers

Rajput rulers were great patrons of:

• Art
• Literature
• Education
• Sanskrit Learning
• Many books were written in Sanskrit.

Major centres of Sanskrit learning were:- Ujjain,  Dhar

5. Development of Languages:- Apabhramsha and Prakrit

Literature was also composed in:

• Apabhramsha
• Prakrit
• Contribution of Jain Scholars
• Jain scholars made significant contributions to literature.
• They helped preserve and develop regional languages.
• Emergence of Modern Indian Languages

The following languages gradually developed from these earlier forms:

• Hindi
• Bengali
• Marathi

The Bhakti Movement:- Introduction

• The Bhakti Movement originated in Tamil Nadu during the 6th century CE.
• It emerged as a response to the growing influence of Buddhism and Jainism.
• It spread across South India for nearly three centuries in the form of:- Shaivism (worship of Shiva), Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu)
• Followers of Shiva were called Nayanars.
• Followers of Vishnu were called Alvars.

The movement emphasized:- Personal devotion (Bhakti)

• Love for God
• Equality among people
• Rituals, sacrifices, and caste distinctions were given less importance.
• The path of Bhakti was open to everyone regardless of caste, wealth, or social status.

Causes of the Rise of the Bhakti Movement

1. Rigid Social Structure

• Society was dominated by the higher varnas:
• Brahmins
• Kshatriyas
• Vaishyas formed the economic backbone.
• Shudras had little social status.
• Many lower castes felt neglected.

2. Complex Rituals

• Religious rituals and sacrifices became costly and complicated.
• Ordinary people found it difficult to participate.
• This encouraged people to seek a simpler path to God.

3. Influence of Islam

• The arrival of Islam introduced ideas such as:
• Belief in one God
• Equality of all people
• Opposition to idol worship
• Bhakti saints tried to reform Hindu society and prevent conversions by emphasizing devotion and equality.

4. Influence of Sufism

• Sufi saints stressed:
• Love for God
• Brotherhood
• Equality
• Bhakti reformers were influenced by these ideas.
• Both movements worked toward creating a harmonious society.

Important Teachings of the Bhakti Reformers

1. Belief in One God:- Bhakti saints emphasized faith in one supreme, omnipotent God.

2. Devotion as the Path to Salvation:- Salvation could be attained through sincere devotion and worship.

The concepts of:- Rebirth, Karma, remained important.

3. Importance of the Guru

• A spiritual guide (Guru) was considered essential.
• The Guru helped devotees attain spiritual knowledge and salvation.

4. Moral and Ethical Living:- Bhakti reformers stressed:

• Good conduct
• Honesty
• Moral values

5. Complete Surrender to God:- Total devotion and surrender to God were considered necessary for divine grace.

6. Equality and Brotherhood

• All human beings were regarded as children of God.
• Equality and brotherhood were central ideals of the movement.

Prominent Bhakti Reformers

Adi Shankaracharya

• One of the earliest Hindu philosophers and reformers.
• Promoted the philosophy of Advaita (non-dualism).
• Helped revive Hinduism.

Ramanuja

• Came from Andhra Pradesh.
• Popularized Bhakti throughout India.
• Gathered a large number of disciples.
• Emphasized devotion to Vishnu.

Nimbarka

• Prominent Bhakti saint of South India.
• Advocated devotion to Krishna.

Madhvacharya

• Major Bhakti philosopher.
• Promoted devotion to Vishnu.

Ramananda

• Spread Bhakti ideas in North India.
• Accepted followers from all castes.

Kabir

• Criticized religious hypocrisy and caste discrimination.
• Emphasized devotion to one God.
• Promoted Hindu-Muslim unity.

Economy and the Government:- The Age of the Three EmpiresThis section covers the administrative systems of the Pala, Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta empires.

• Influences:-Based on Gupta and Chalukyan administrative practices.
• The Monarch: Supreme head of administration and armed forces.
• Succession: Generally followed the rule of the eldest son/brother.
• Royal Council: King advised by specialized ministers (e.g., Purohita, Treasurer).

Territorial Divisions:

• Bhukti: Provinces ruled by a Governor (Uparika).
• Mandala / Bhumi: Districts headed by a Visayapati.

Feudal Lords: Rise of Samantas who controlled clusters of villages.
Village Rule: Managed by hereditary headmen and accountants.

The Chola Empire (900 to 1200 CE):- This section highlights the military strength, revenue, and local governance of the Cholas.

• Military Structure: Comprised elephants, cavalry, and infantry.
• Infrastructure: Built extensive royal roads for trade and troop movement.
• Agriculture: Developed networks of irrigation tanks and canals.
• Revenue Sources: Land tax, trade tolls, professional taxes, and war plunder.
• Land Administration: Conducted elaborate surveys to fix revenue rates.
• Local Governance: Two distinct types of village assemblies existed:
• Ur: General assembly open to all local village residents.
• Sabha / Mahasabha: Assembly exclusive to adult Brahmanas in Agrahara villages.

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