Chapter - 3 Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

 Chapter - 3 Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

1. Birth of the Weimar Republic (1918–1933)

• After Germany's defeat in WWI, the monarchy ended, and a democratic government called the Weimar Republic was established in 1919.
• The Treaty of Versailles (1919) blamed Germany for the war, leading to heavy reparations, loss of territory, and economic hardship.
• Germans saw the Weimar government as weak and humiliating for accepting the treaty.

• Germany lost its colonies and 13% of its land.

1.1 The Effect of the War

Effects on Germany:

Defeat and Humiliation

• Germany lost the war and had to accept the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
• The treaty blamed Germany for the war and punished it harshly.

War Guilt and Reparations

• Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war.
• It had to pay heavy reparations (money) to the Allied countries.

This caused a major economic crisis.

• Economic Collapse
• Prices rose rapidly (inflation), and the German currency lost value.
• Unemployment and poverty increased.

Political Instability

• The Weimar Republic (Germany’s democratic government) was blamed for accepting the treaty.
• People lost trust in democracy and were attracted to extreme ideologies, like Nazism.
• "November Criminals":- Who support Socialist, Chatolics, Democratcs become easy target of Conservatives. They have been called mockingly "November Criminal". 

1.2 - Poltical Radicalism and Economic Crisis

• Weimar Republic concided with spartacist league.
• Soviet of workers set-up many cities.
• Demand for soviet style governance
• Weimar Republic crushed with the help of veterans organization (Free Corps).

Economic Crisis:

Treaty of Versailles Reparations

• Germany had to pay huge amounts of money to the Allies.
• This led to debt and borrowing.

Hyperinflation (1923)

• Germany printed more money to pay reparations → money lost value.
• Prices skyrocketed – people needed wheelbarrows full of money to buy bread.
• Middle class lost all their savings.
• Dawes Plan:- To recover from that sitiutation introduced"Dawes Plan".

1.3 The Great Depression (1929)

• The U.S. stock market crash led to global economic collapse.
• Germany was badly affected because it relied on U.S. loans.
• Factories closed, millions lost jobs, poverty rose sharply.

2: Hitler's Rise to Power

Political unstability and Poor economic condition of Germany help Hitler to rise.

Who was Adolf Hitler?

• Born in Austria in 1889.
• 1919 joined German worker party.
• Renamed Nationalist Socialist German worker.
• Party to be known as 'Nazi Party'.
• In 1923, planned to seize control of Barvaria.
• 1929 Nazi propoganda.
• 1928 Party got 26% votes and 1932 become largest party got 37% votes.

2.1 The Destruction of Democracy

After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, he quickly moved to end democracy and establish a dictatorship.

1. Reichstag Fire (February 1933)

• The German Parliament building (Reichstag) was set on fire.
• Nazis blamed the Communists for the fire.
• Used it as an excuse to arrest thousands of political opponents.

2. The Enabling Act (March 1933)

• This law gave Hitler full powers to make laws without the Reichstag (parliament).
• It marked the end of democracy in Germany.
• Hitler could now rule by decree (without elections or discussion).

Establishing a Dictatorship:

Banning Political Parties

• All parties except the Nazi Party were banned.
• Germany became a one-party state.

Control Over Media and Education

• Press, radio, and schools were strictly controlled.
• Only Nazi ideas were promoted.

Secret Police – Gestapo

• The Gestapo arrested and tortured anyone who criticized Hitler.
• Fear and surveillance kept people silent.

Removal of Opponents

• Trade unions were banned.
• Opposition leaders, communists, and Jews were jailed, exiled, or killed.

2.2 – Reconstruction

• Hjalmar Schacht got the responsibility of economic recovery.
• Employement through a state funded work creation programme.
• Pulled out of the League of Nations in Germany in  1933.
• Reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936 and integrated Austria & Germany in  1938 under the sloga "One people, one empire, one leader".
• 1939 Germany invaded Polland. and Started a war with France  & England.
• Tripartite Pact Signed between Germany, Italy, & Japan In September 1940.
• Hitler moved to achieve conquering Eastern Europe & 1941 attacked the Soviet Union.
• USA involvement in the war.
• hitler attacke US base at Pearl Harbor.
• Then Us entered the Second world war anddropping atombomb on "Hiroshima in Japan" in 1945.

 The Nazi Worldview 

A worldview means the way a person or group sees and understands the world.

The Nazi worldview was extreme, racist, anti-democratic, and militaristic.

Main Ideas of the Nazi Worldview:

1. Racial Purity

• Nazis believed in a "racial hierarchy".
• Aryans (pure Germans) were seen as the master race – strong, pure, and destined to rule the world.
• Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, Blacks, and disabled people were seen as inferior or "undesirable".

2. Anti-Semitism (Hatred of Jews)

• Jews were blamed for:
• Germany’s defeat in World War I
• The economic crisis
• The rise of communism
• Nazis spread false propaganda about Jews to turn people against them.

3. Against Democracy

• Nazis saw democracy as weak and divisive.
• Believed in one strong leader – Hitler – who should have total control.

4. Expansionism (Lebensraum)

• Nazis believed Germany needed "Lebensraum" (living space) to grow.
• Planned to conquer Eastern Europe and Russia to settle Aryans and use others as slaves.

5. Role of Women

• Nazi ideal woman = homemaker and mother of pure Aryan children.
• Women were encouraged to leave jobs, marry early, and have many children.
• Medals were given to mothers with many Aryan children.

6. Youth Indoctrination

• Children were trained to love Hitler, hate Jews, and be loyal Nazis.
• Boys joined Hitler Youth, and girls joined League of German Girls.
• Education focused on obedience, nationalism, and racial purity.

3.1 – Establishment of the Racial Society

A racial society is one where people are treated differently based on their race or ethnicity.

The Nazis believed that only "pure Aryans" (Germans) were superior, and all other races were inferior or dangerous.

Nazi Beliefs About Race:

• Aryans = Master Race
• Strong, pure, intelligent.
• Meant to rule the world.
• "Undesirable" People
• Jews, Gypsies, Poles, Russians, Black people, the disabled, and others were seen as "unfit to live".
• Nazis believed these groups weakened Germany.

Steps to Build a Racial State:

1. Exclusion Laws

• Jews were excluded from civil services, schools, universities, and the army.
• Nuremberg Laws (1935):
• Jews lost German citizenship.
• Jews and Germans were banned from marrying.

2. Segregation and Labeling

• Jews had to wear a yellow Star of David.
• Jewish shops were boycotted and destroyed.
• Public spaces like parks, cinemas, and buses were "Aryans only".

3. Propaganda and Indoctrination

• Nazi media portrayed Jews and other groups as evil and dirty.
• Children were taught racist ideas in schools.
• Posters, films, and speeches spread hatred.

4. Forced Sterilization and Euthanasia

• People with mental or physical disabilities were sterilized or killed.
• The Nazis believed this would keep the Aryan race pure.

3.2 – The Racial Utopia

• The Nazis wanted to create a "racial utopia" where only "pure Aryans" lived, and all others were removed or destroyed.
• Genocide = mass killing of a large group of people, especially based on race or religion.
• Poles were force to leave their homes.
• Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snacthed from their mother and examined by "race experts".

Youth in Nazi Germany

School:-

 All school were 'cleansed' and purified. 

Jews teahcer or seen as 'politically unreliable' were dismissed.

Undeisrable and Jews students thrown out from school.

In 1940s, thery were taken to the gas chambers.

Education System

• Books, subjects, and teachers were controlled by Nazis.
• Schools taught:
• Nazi version of history
• Science to support racial theories
• Loyalty to Hitler
• Hatred of Jews and non-Aryans

Jung Wolk,

• At the Age of 10 – Join Jungwolk.
• At age 14, all German boys were required by law to join theNazi Youth Organization.
• By 18, he is considered a trained Nazi soldier.
• Youth League of Nazis was founded in 1922
• Renamed after four years - "Hitler Youth".

Nazi Cult of Mother

The Nazi cult of motherhood was the ideal image of women promoted by Hitler’s regime.

Nazis believed that a woman’s main duty was to:

Goals of Nazi Policy for Women:

• Increase the Aryan population
• Make women obedient, loyal mothers and wives
• Those who were maintained contact with Jews, poles and Russians were punished (Praded, Shaved heads, Blackened faces.)

4.2 The Art of Propaganda

Code Language

• Mass killing or Murder:- Special Treatment, Final Solution.(For Jews)
• Euthanasia :- Selection and Disinfection. (For Disabled)
• Gas Chamber:- Disinfection area.
• Nazi idea spread through:- 

Tool                         How It Was Used

Posters             Showed Hitler as strong, heroic, god-like

Radio             Broadcast speeches, patriotic songs, Nazi messages

Films             Made to show Jews as evil, Hitler as great (e.g. Triumph of the Will)

Newspapers     Only published Nazi-approved news

Ordinary People and Crimes Against Humanity

Labeling and Identification:

• Jews were often marked or identified.
• Many homes, businesses, and individuals were labeled (e.g., "Jews live here" or the house marked for persecution).

Knowledge about the Holocaust

• The Holocaust killed 6 million Jews.
• Other victims: Gypsies, Poles, disabled people, political prisoners.
• These were crimes against humanity.
• These acts were not just war crimes—they were planned mass murders.

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Chapter - 2 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

 Chapter - 2 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution 

1. The Age of Social Change

• Before the 1800s, most of Europe was ruled by monarchies.
• After the French Revolution (1789), new ideas about liberty, equality, and democracy spread across Europe.
• Different political groups (liberals, radicals, conservatives) debated how society should change.

Who Were Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives?

1. Liberals :- Believed in:

• Wanted change, but slowly and peacefully.
• Individual rights (freedom of speech, religion).
• Elected governments (not absolute monarchs).
• Laws made by Parliament, not kings.
• BUT: They didn’t want voting rights for everyone—only for property-owning men.
• Think of them as supporters of limited democracy.

2. Radicals :- Believed in:

• Wanted big, fast changes in society.
• Equality for all men, including the poor.
• Universal adult voting rights (for men).
• Ending the power of kings and nobles.
• Many supported revolutions to achieve change.
• Think of them as revolutionaries who wanted real democracy.

3. Conservatives :-

• Wanted to keep things the same.
• Monarchy and traditional society.
• The church and nobles’ power.
• Later, some conservatives agreed to small changes—but only to keep order.
• Think of them as defenders of the old ways.

Industrial Society and Social Change 

It was a time of profound social and economic changes. It was a time when cities came up and new industrialised regions developed, railways expanded and the industrial revolution occurred.

1. Industrialisation and Life of Workers

• Due to Industrilisation men, women and children came to factories.
• Life became hard for workers:
• Long working hours.
• Low wages.
• Unsafe and unhealthy conditions.
• Women and children were also made to work in terrible conditions.

2. Protests and Reforms :-  Liberals and radicals wanted revolutions to put an end to the kind of governments established in Europe in 1815 and They demanded:

• Workers in Europe started forming trade unions.
• Better wages.
• Shorter working hours.
• Safe working conditions.
• Governments slowly passed labour laws to improve worker rights.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

• After the French Revolution, many new political ideas spread across Europe.
• People began questioning:
• Why some were rich and others poor.
• Why workers had no rights while factory owners became wealthy.

What is Socialism?

• Socialism is an idea that promotes equality and collective ownership of resources.
• Socialists believed: - Wanted to end private property and bring economic equality.
• Private property creates inequality.
• The government or community should own and manage resources like land and factories.
• Everyone should get a fair share of wealth.

Early Socialists

• Believed in a cooperative society where everyone shares resources.
• Some key thinkers:
• Robert Owen (England): Built a model socialist community in New Harmony, USA.
• Louis Blanc (France): Suggested workshops run by the government to give jobs to the unemployed.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels :- Most famous socialist thinkers. They Believed:

• Wrote the Communist Manifesto.
• Society is divided into capitalists (rich) and workers (poor).
• A worker’s revolution would overthrow the capitalists.
• This would lead to a classless society (communism).

Support for Socialism 

1. Support from Workers

• Industrial workers faced long working hours, low wages, and poor working conditions.
• Many workers supported socialism because:
• It promised equality and better working conditions.
• It aimed to end exploitation by factory owners.
• Workers formed trade unions to fight for their rights.

2. Formation of Socialist Parties

• In many European countries, socialist political parties were formed.
• These parties aimed to bring change through elections and laws, not just revolution.
• Examples:
• Social Democratic Party (Germany) – became very powerful.
• Labour Party (Britain) – supported workers' rights.

3. Socialists in Parliament

• In countries like Germany, France, and Britain, socialist parties:
• Contested elections.
• Spoke up for workers in parliament.
• Helped pass laws to improve wages, working hours, and safety.

The Russian Revolution

Socialist tookover the government in Russia through the October Revolution of 1917. The fall of Monarchy in February 1917 and the events  Of October are Normally called the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

1. Ruler: Tsar Nicholas II

• Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, an autocratic monarch.
• He had complete control—people had no say in government.
• No freedom of speech, press, or assembly.

2. A Vast Empire

• Russia included many different nationalities:
• Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Finns, Armenians, etc.
• Many of these groups wanted independence.
• There was a lot of ethnic tension and unrest.

Economy and Society

3. Agrarian Economy

• Russia was mostly agricultural (based on farming).
• Peasants made up 85% of the population.
• Most peasants were poor, landless, and exploited by landlords.
• In some areas, peasants had common land, unlike Western Europe.

4. Industrial Growth

• Cities like Petrograd and Moscow had factories.
• Factory workers lived in harsh conditions:
• Long working hours.
• Low wages.
• No rights or safety.
• There eas division among worker. but all workers unite to strike work (stop work).
• Workers began forming unions and protests and they help members in times of unemployement or financial hardship.

5. Society Was Unequal

• Wealth was in the hands of a few nobles and landlords.
• The middle class was small but growing.
• Workers and peasants had no power.

6. Difference between Russian and Europian Peasants 

• Peasants of Russia had no respect of nobility.
• Russia peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them.
• Frequently the refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords.
• Peasants of Russia pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir) divided according to the needs of individuals familied.

Socialism in Russia 

Till 1914 all political party were illegal in Russia

1. Beginning of Socialism in Russia

• In the late 19th century, socialist ideas started spreading in Russia.
• Workers and peasants were unhappy due to:
• Poverty, unfair treatment, and no rights.
• People were inspired by socialist ideas from Europe, especially Karl Marx.

2. The Russian Socialist Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP)

• Formed in 1898 to promote socialism in Russia.
• In 1900 They formed Socialist Revolutionary Party.
• Later split into two groups: Because they have diffiernt idealogy

Group                         Leader                                     Beliefs

Bolsheviks Vladimir Lenin         Wanted a quick revolution. Believed in a small, disciplined                                                                                     party of revolutionaries.

Mensheviks Various leaders Believed in gradual change and mass support through democracy.

A Trubulent time : The 1905 Revolution 

3. Problems in Russia

• Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, an absolute monarch.
• Society had extreme inequality:
• A few nobles were rich.
• Most people were poor peasants or workers.
• Workers faced long hours, low wages, and no rights.

4. Role of the Working Class:-They demanded:

• Workers in factories started forming unions and strikes.
• Better working conditions.
• More wages.
• Shorter hours.
• Many workers supported the Bolsheviks because they promised change.

5. 1905 Revolution – A Step Toward Socialism

• Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace.
• Protesters were shot by Tsar’s soldiers on Bloody Sunday.
• This led to widespread anger and protests.
• Tsar created the Duma (Parliament), but kept most power.

6. Rise of the Bolsheviks

• During World War I, Russia suffered heavy losses.
• People were angry at the Tsar for continuing the war.
• In 1917, two revolutions happened:
• February Revolution: Tsar was removed.
• October Revolution: Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government.

7. Building a Socialist State

• After the Bolsheviks came to power:
• Land was given to peasants.
• Factories were taken over by the government.
• Private property was abolished.
• Russia became the world’s first socialist country.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

1. When and How the War Started

• World War I began in 1914.
• Russia joined the war to support Serbia against Austria-Hungary.
• Russia was part of the Allied Powers (along with Britain and France).

2. War on the Eastern Front

• Russia fought mainly against Germany and Austria-Hungary on the Eastern Front.
• The Russian army was:
• Badly equipped.
• Poorly trained.
• Lacked proper weapons, clothing, and food.
• Millions of soldiers died, and morale was very low.

3. Effect of the War on Russian People

• The war caused huge problems inside Russia:
• Food shortages in cities.
• Fuel shortages during the cold winter.
• Prices rose, but wages remained low.
• Transport system broke down (railways and trains were used for war only).
• Common people—workers, peasants, and soldiers—suffered the most.

4. Role of Tsar Nicholas II

• The Tsar took personal command of the army (even though he had no military experience).
• People blamed him for:
• War failures.
• Mismanagement of food and economy.
• His popularity dropped sharply.

5. Growing Discontent

• Soldiers refused to fight.
• Workers went on strike.
• Peasants demanded land.
• The situation became out of control.

6. Result: Revolution Begins

• The war created the perfect conditions for revolution:
• Anger against the Tsar.
• Hunger and poverty.
• Support for socialist ideas.
• In February 1917, the first Russian Revolution began.

The February Revolution in Petrograd 

When Did It Happen?

• The February Revolution took place in February 1917.
• It started in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg), the capital of Russia then.

Why Did People Revolt? :1. Impact of World War I

• Russia suffered millions of deaths in the war.
• There were shortages of food and fuel.
• Prices rose, wages stayed low.
• People blamed the Tsar and his government for the crisis.

2. Harsh Winter and Food Shortage

• The winter of 1917 was very cold.
• Bread was scarce.
• Women had to stand in long queues to get food.

3. Discontent Among Soldiers and Workers

• Workers had terrible working conditions.
• Soldiers were tired of war and began to refuse orders.
• People were ready for change.

How Did the February Revolution Begin?

Key Events –                                         Step by Step

Date                                                 What Happened

22 Feb 1917 -         Factory owners locked out workers at a big factory. Workers began to protest.

23 Feb (International Women’s Day) - Women workers led a strike for bread and peace. Thousands                                                                                                             joined.

24–25 Feb - Strikes spread all over Petrograd. Workers, students, and even some soldiers joined.

27 Feb - Army refused to shoot the protestors. Some regiments mutinied (disobeyed orders) and joined                     the revolution.

2 March - Tsar Nicholas II abdicated (left the throne). The 300-year-old Romanov dynasty ended.

3.1 – After February (1917)

After the February Revolution, big changes happened in Russia — but the struggle was not over yet.

1. Fall of the Monarchy

• Tsar Nicholas II abdicated (left the throne) on 2 March 1917.
• This ended 300 years of Romanov dynasty rule.

2. Two Governments Were Formed :- After the Tsar left, power was shared between:

Government                           

Provisional Government

• Who Were They? :- Temporary government made up of moderate leaders (from middle class)
•  What They Did :- Promised elections and reforms

Petrograd Soviet

• Who Were They? :- A council of workers and soldiers' representatives
•  What They Did :- Demanded rights for workers, soldiers, and peasants

3. Workers and Soldiers Got Active

• They formed Soviets (local councils) all over Russia.
• Workers demanded better wages and working hours.
• Soldiers in the army began electing their own leaders.

4. Peasants and the Land Question

• Peasants wanted the land of nobles to be given to them.
• Many began seizing land on their own — even though the government said not to.

5. Problems with the Provisional Government

• The government was weak and unpopular because:
• It continued Russia’s involvement in World War I.
• It refused to give land to peasants.
• It did not improve food supply or workers’ lives.
• People started losing trust in it.

6. Rise of the Bolsheviks

• The Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, gained popularity.
• Lenin returned from exile in April 1917 and gave the April Theses:
• "Peace, Land, and Bread"
• End the war immediately
• Transfer land to peasants
• Power to the Soviets

3.2 – The Revolution of October 1917

After the February Revolution, the Provisional Government failed to solve major problems. This gave the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, a chance to take over.

1. Lenin’s Leadership

• 16 Octoober 1917, Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power.
• Military Revolutionary Committe was appointed by the Leon Trotskii.
• Lenin returned to Russia in April 1917 and gave the April Theses:
• End the war.
• Give land to peasants.
• Nationalize banks and factories.
• Power to the Soviets, not the Provisional Government.
• Slogan: "Peace, Land, and Bread"

2. Growing Support for the Bolsheviks

• Bolsheviks gained massive support from:
• Workers (wanted control of factories).
• Peasants (wanted land).
• Soldiers (wanted peace).
• Soviets (workers’ councils) started supporting Bolshevik ideas.

3. The October Revolution (24–25 October 1917)

• 24 October Prime Minister Kerenskii had left the city to summon troops
• Armed Bolshevik workers, called the Red Guards, took control of:
• Government offices,
• Railways, banks, and telegraph lines,
• Winter Palace (where the Provisional Government was based).
• The Provisional Government was overthrown without much bloodshed.
• Bolsheviks took power in Petrograd.

4. After the Revolution :- Lenin declared:

• Russia is now a socialist state.
• Land to peasants.
• Control of factories to workers.
• Banks, factories, and transport nationalized.

4 – What Changed After October? 

After the Bolsheviks took power in the October Revolution, they began transforming Russia into a socialist state. 

1. Immediate Changes Announced

• Land was declared the property of all people and given to peasants.
• Banks and large industries were nationalized (taken over by the government).
• Workers took control of factories.
• Church lands were seized.
• Banned  old titles of aristocracy.
•  New uniforms were disigned for the army and officials and compition organised in 1918 - when the Soviet hat ( budeonovka) was chosen.

2. Lenin Takes Control

• The Bolsheviks formed a new government called the Soviet Government.
• Lenin became the leader.
• They renamed themselves the Communist Party.

3. The Bolsheviks in Power

• The new government was based on Soviets (councils of workers and soldiers).
• They failed to gain majority support.
• January 1918 The Russian Parliament (Duma) was shut down.
• Only Communist Party members were allowed to stand in elections later.
• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)
• Russia withdrew from World War I by signing this treaty with Germany.
• However, Russia lost a lot of land.
• The seceret police Called the "CHEKA", later OGPU and NKVD). punished those who criticised the Bolsheviks.

4.1 Civil War 

• Many people were against the Bolsheviks:
• Landowners, nobles, Tsar supporters, and foreign countries (like Britain and France).
• Organised troop to fight the Boldheviks Red, Whites and Green (Socialist Revolutionaries)
• They formed the “Whites”(Pro-Tsarist).
• The Bolsheviks (“Reds”) fought against them in a civil war.
• The Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky, won the war.

Harsh Measures by the Bolsheviks

• Started the policy of War Communism:
• They seized the land.
• January 1920 the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire
• Cooperation with non-Russian nationalist and Muslim jadidists they succeeded.
• Government controlled all industries and food.
• Peasants were forced to give food to the army and cities.
• People who opposed were arrested, killed, or sent to labour camps.

7. Formation of the USSR (1922)

• After winning the civil war, the Bolsheviks formed the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
• It was the world’s first socialist country.

4.2 – Making a Socialist Society

After the Bolsheviks came to power in the October Revolution of 1917, their goal was to build a socialist society.

a. Nationalization of Economy

• Banks, factories, railways, and other industries were taken over by the state.
• Private businesses were banned.
• Property (especially land) was taken from nobles and given to peasants.

b. Control Over Production

• Workers' committees were set up to run factories.
• The government decided how goods would be produced and distributed.
• Emphasis was on meeting the needs of all, not making profits.

c. Education and Equality

• Free education was given to all.
• Co-education (boys and girls studying together) was promoted.
• Churches were separated from schools and government.

d. Women’s Rights

• Equal rights for women in jobs and property.
• Women were encouraged to work in factories, farms, and offices.
• Crèches (childcare centers) were opened to support working women.

4.3 – Stalinism and Collectivisation 

After Lenin died in 1924, Joseph Stalin became the leader of the Soviet Union. He introduced strict policies to rapidly transform Russia into a modern industrial and agricultural power.

Who Was Stalin?

• Stalin was the leader of the Communist Party after Lenin.
• He believed in strong control, rapid industrial growth, and no opposition.

1. What is Collectivisation?

• It was a policy to combine small farms into large collective farms (called kolkhoz).
• The goal: Increase food production and bring agriculture under state control.

2. Why Was Collectivisation Introduced?

• Peasants didn’t want to sell grain to the government at low prices.
• This caused food shortages in cities.
• Stalin wanted control over farming like he had over industry.

3. Resistance and Harsh Measures

• Many wealthy peasants (kulaks) resisted collectivisation were severly punished.
• Confiscated (taken or seized) their land,
• Sent them to labour camps
• Used violence and terror to crush opposition.

5 – The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

 1. Inspiration Around the World

• The revolution gave hope to the poor and working class in many countries.
• People saw it as a successful fight against inequality and injustice.
• Socialist parties and worker movements grew stronger in many nations.
• Germany, Hungary, and Italy: Workers tried to start revolutions like in Russia (some failed, some created short-lived governments).

2. USSR as a Model

• The USSR became the first socialist state and acted as a model for others.
• Many countries admired its:
• Rapid industrialisation
• Equality for workers and women
• Free education and health care

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Chapter - 1 The French Revolution

Chapter - 1 The French Revolution 

1. Introduction: The Revolution Begins

• The French Revolution began in 1789.
• It ended absolute monarchy and led to the rise of democracy in France.
• It inspired revolutions in Europe and other parts of the world.

French Society in the Late 18th Century

During the late 1700s (18th century), French society was divided into three estates – a system known as the Old Regime.

1. The Three Estates

                                                            First Estate – Clergy

• Included church officials (bishops, priests, etc.)
• Owned about 10% of the land
• Paid no taxes
• Collected tithes (tax from peasants)

Second Estate – Nobility

• Included nobles and lords
• Owned about 20-25% of the land
• Enjoyed privileges (hunting rights, exemption from taxes)
• Held high posts in government, army, and church

Third Estate – Common People

• About 97% of the population
• Divided into 3 groups:
• Peasants – worked on land, paid heavy taxes
• Workers and servants – lived in cities, often poor and hungry
• Middle class (bourgeoisie) – merchants, lawyers, teachers; educated and influenced by Enlightenment ideas
• Paid all the taxes (to king, nobles, church)
• Had no political rights

Problems Faced by the Third Estate

• High tax burden
• No voice in decision-making
• Food shortages and rising prices
• Social inequality and lack of justice

Reasons for the Struggle to Survive:

• Growing Population
• The population of France increased rapidly.
• More people meant higher demand for food, jobs, and resources.
• Slow Growth in Production
• Agricultural production could not keep up with the rising population.
• There was no improvement in farming techniques.
• Food Shortages
• Poor harvests led to short supply of grain.
• Bread was the main food, and its price rose sharply.
• The poor could not afford to buy food.
• Low Wages and Unemployment
• Many workers were unemployed or poorly paid.
• The price of essential goods rose faster than wages.
• Heavy Taxes
• Only the Third Estate paid taxes to the king, nobles, and church.
• This made life harder for common people.

Outcome/ Result:

• People were angry and frustrated.
• Their basic needs were not met, and they had no rights or support.
• This struggle to survive created a strong feeling of unrest, which contributed to the French Revolution.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

Who were the Middle Class? :- In 18th century France, a new middle class was growing. It included:

• Merchants
• Lawyers
• Teachers
• Bankers
• Businessmen and professionals
• They were wealthy and educated, but they still belonged to the Third Estate, and had no political rights or privileges.

What Did They Want? :- They were inspired by Enlightenment thinkers like:

• John Locke – believed in natural rights (life, liberty, property)
• Rousseau – believed in equality and social contract
• Montesquieu – promoted separation of powers in government
• These ideas made the middle class believe that:
• Everyone should be equal before the law
• Privileges of the First and Second Estates should end
• Power should be in the hands of the people, not just the king and nobles

Their Role in the Revolution:

• The middle class played a leading role in demanding liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• They spread new ideas through books, newspapers, and discussions.
• They helped bring about the end of feudal privileges and the rise of democracy in France.

The Outbreak of the French Revolution

1. Estates-General Meeting (May 5, 1789)

• King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates-General to discuss the financial crisis.
• All three estates (Clergy, Nobles, Common people) were invited.
• Each estate had one vote, which was unfair to the Third Estate (they were the majority, but had the same vote as the minority).

2. Third Estate Protests

• The Third Estate demanded voting by head (one person = one vote), but the king refused.
• On June 20, 1789, they declared themselves the National Assembly.
• They took the Tennis Court Oath, promising not to separate until they had written a new constitution.

3. Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

• People feared that the king would use the army against the National Assembly.
• Angry crowds in Paris stormed the Bastille (a royal prison and symbol of tyranny).
• The Bastille was destroyed, and this marked the beginning of the revolution.

4. Revolt in the Countryside

• In the countryside, peasants attacked noble landlords.
• They looted grain stores and burned tax records.
• This period is called the Great Fear.

5. Important Changes

• August 1789: National Assembly passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
• It declared freedom, equality, and fraternity.
• 1791: France became a constitutional monarchy.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

1. Background

• Before the revolution, France was an absolute monarchy, where King Louis XVI had all the powers.
• The Third Estate protested against this system and formed the National Assembly in 1789.

2. Drafting a Constitution

• The National Assembly began drafting a new constitution.
• In 1791, the first constitution of France was completed.
• This limited the powers of the king and created a constitutional monarchy.

3. Key Features of the 1791 Constitution

• The king became the head of the state, but his powers were checked by the National Assembly.
• Laws were made by the Assembly, not by the king.
• Only active citizens (men above 25 who paid taxes) could vote (no voting rights for women or the poor).
• It guaranteed some basic rights like freedom of speech and equality before the law.

4. Impact

• The absolute power of the king was ended.
• A new system of separation of powers was introduced.
• Although not fully democratic, it was a major step toward modern democracy.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

1. War and Crisis

• In 1792, France went to war with Austria and Prussia.
• People feared that foreign kings might help Louis XVI regain power.
• Inside France, people were angry at the king for betraying the revolution.

2. Fall of the Monarchy

• On August 10, 1792, revolutionaries stormed the palace of the king in Paris.
• King Louis XVI was arrested and imprisoned.
• On September 21, 1792, the National Convention (new elected assembly) abolished the monarchy.

3. France Becomes a Republic

• The monarchy was officially ended.
• France was declared a republic – a country without a king, where representatives are elected by the people.

4. Execution of the King and Queen

• In January 1793, King Louis XVI was tried and found guilty of treason.
• He was executed by guillotine.

The Reign of Terror (1793–1794)

1. What Was the Reign of Terror?

• The Reign of Terror was a period of extreme violence and fear in France.
• It lasted from 1793 to 1794.
• It was led by Maximilien Robespierre, the head of the Jacobins and the Committee of Public Safety.

2. Actions Taken During the Reign of Terror

• Robespierre believed that terror was necessary to protect the revolution.
• Anyone suspected of being against the revolution (even slightly) was arrested and executed by guillotine.
• Thousands of people, including nobles, clergy, former revolutionaries, and even ordinary citizens, were killed.

3. Strict Controls by Robespierre

• Censorship of the press.
• Fixed prices of bread and other essential goods.
• Banned luxury goods.
• Promoted equality in clothing and speech (called each other "citizen").

4. End of the Reign of Terror

• People became afraid and angry at Robespierre’s harsh rule.
• In July 1794, Robespierre was arrested and executed by guillotine.
• This ended the Reign of Terror.
• In October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was also executed.

A Directory Rules France

1. What is the Directory?

• After the fall of Robespierre in 1794, a new government was formed in France.
• A new constitution was introduced in 1795.
• It established a Directory – a group of five members who shared executive power.
• It was meant to prevent any one person from becoming too powerful like Robespierre.

2. Structure of the New Government

• There were two elected legislative councils (law-making bodies).
• The five Directors were chosen by the councils to run the government.
• This system tried to create a balance of power.

3. Problems During the Directory Rule

• The Directors often fought among themselves.
• They were corrupt and inefficient.
• Political instability and economic problems continued.
• The government was weak and unpopular.

4. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Due to the failure of the Directory, people lost trust in it.
• In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, a popular military general, overthrew the Directory in a coup.
• He later declared himself Emperor of France.

Did Women Have a Revolution?

1. Role of Women in the Revolution

• Women were actively involved in the French Revolution.
• They demanded equality, education, and fair wages.
• Many women from the Third Estate had to work hard to support their families and still had no political rights.

2. Women’s Demands :-Women wanted:

• The right to vote.
• The right to be elected to government.
• Equal education and job opportunities.
• End to discrimination against them.

3. Famous Example: The Bread March (October 1789)

• Thousands of women marched from Paris to Versailles, demanding bread and lower prices.
• They forced the king to move to Paris, closer to the people.

4. Olympe de Gouges and Women’s Rights

• Olympe de Gouges was a French writer and activist.
• She wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen (1791).
• She demanded equal rights for women, including in marriage and politics.
• She was executed in 1793 for her views.

5. After the Revolution

• The new government did not grant women equal rights.
• In 1793, women's political clubs were banned.
• Women were told to stay at home and focus on family duties.

The Abolition of Slavery

1. Background

• In the 18th century, France was involved in the transatlantic slave trade.
• Slaves were brought from Africa to work on sugar, coffee, and tobacco plantations in the Caribbean colonies like Saint Domingue (now Haiti).
• The trade made French merchants very rich, but it was based on extreme cruelty and inhuman treatment of African people.

2. Demands to End Slavery

• During the French Revolution, many people began to speak out against slavery.
• Enlightenment thinkers believed in freedom and equality for all humans.
• Slaves and free people of color in the colonies also revolted and demanded freedom.

3. Abolition of Slavery (1794)

• In 1794, the revolutionary government in France abolished slavery in all its colonies.
• This was a huge step toward human rights.

4. Slavery Restored and Abolished Again

• Later, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, he reintroduced slavery in 1802.
• Finally, slavery was permanently abolished by the French government in 1848.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

The French Revolution didn't just change politics – it also changed people’s everyday lives in many important ways:

1. End of Censorship and More Freedom

• Before the revolution, the king controlled what people could say, write, or print.
• After the revolution, censorship was removed.
• Freedom of speech and expression became a right.
• Newspapers, books, and pamphlets spread new ideas of liberty and equality.

2. New Ideas through Education

• Revolutionaries believed that education was important to create good citizens.
• Schools were opened to spread revolutionary ideas and values.
• The aim was to educate people about their rights and duties.

3. New Laws and Equality

• Old laws based on birth and privilege were removed.
• Everyone was equal before the law.
• A new legal system was created that treated all citizens fairly.

4. New Way of Speaking and Dressing

• People started using words like “citizen” and “citizeness” instead of “sir” or “madam”.
• Wearing simple clothes (like the sans-culottes) became a symbol of equality and support for the revolution.

5. Changes Came at a Cost

• Many people lost their lives during the revolution (especially during the Reign of Terror).
• While some rights were gained, not everyone benefited equally – especially women and the poor.

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