Chapter - 10 The Constitution of India — An Introduction

 Chapter - 10  The Constitution of India — An Introduction

What Is a Constitution?

• A Constitution is a formal document that defines:
• The basic principles and laws of a nation.
• The structure of the three main organs of government:
• Legislature – makes laws.
• Executive – implements laws.
• Judiciary – interprets laws.
• The roles and responsibilities of these organs.
• The checks and balances to maintain fairness, prevent misuse of power, and ensure accountability.
• The rights and duties of citizens.
• The vision, goals, and values that guide the country's future (like democracy, justice, equality, etc.).

Why Do We Need a Constitution?

• We need a constitution to:
• Ensure equality and justice for everyone.
• Promote fraternity (brotherhood) and freedom.
• Respect pluralism (diverse cultures, religions, and communities).
• Set clear rules to protect citizens' rights and limit the power of the government.
• Provide a common framework for how the country is run.
• What Most Constitutions Contain:
• Preamble – Introduction that states the ideals and goals of the nation.
• Fundamental Rights – Basic rights guaranteed to all citizens.
• Directive Principles – Guidelines for the government to make policies in the future.
• Structure of Government – Powers, functions, and relations of legislature, executive, and judiciary.
• Citizen Duties – Responsibilities expected from citizens.
• Emergency Provisions – Special powers during national emergencies.
• Amendment Process – How the constitution can be changed.
• Elections and Representation – How leaders are chosen and represent the people.

Writing the Constitution of India

• Why was it needed?
• India was preparing for independence from British rule.
• Needed a framework for self-governance in a large, diverse country.
• Important questions to address:
• What type of government?
• What rules and principles to follow?
• Who gets voting rights?
• How to resolve disputes?

Formation of the Constituent Assembly

• Formed in 1946.
• Initially had 389 members, reduced to 299 after Partition.
• Included 15 women.
• Members represented India's regions, professions, and social groups.

Development of the Constitution

• Constituent Assembly was formed on 9 December 1946.
• Members were elected by provincial legislative assemblies.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as Chairman of the Assembly.
• Work completed on 26 November 1949.
• Constitution adopted on 26 January 1950 – now celebrated as Republic Day.

Drafting Committee

• Drafting Committee prepared the first version of the Constitution.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman.
• He was a social reformer and first Law & Justice Minister of independent India.

 What Shaped and Influenced the Indian Constitution?

1. Role of the Constituent Assembly:- The Constitution was written by the Constituent Assembly, but it was influenced by multiple sources.

2. Influence of the Indian Freedom Movement

• The freedom struggle deeply influenced the Constitution.
• Many leaders of the freedom movement were also members of the Constituent Assembly.
• Their ideas and ideals were reflected in the Constitution.

Values Derived from the Freedom Struggle:

• Equality for all
• Justice for all
• Freedom
• Fraternity (brotherhood)
• Cultural heritage of India
• Constitution as a tool to achieve these values

3. Influence of Other Countries

• The Constitution included useful features from other countries’ constitutions:
• Parliamentary system from the UK
• Fundamental Rights from the USA
• Directive Principles from Ireland
• Emergency provisions from Germany, etc.

4. Influence of India’s Civilisational Heritage and Culture

• Ancient Indian values and traditions shaped many ideas:
• Diversity of views accepted
• Nature as sacred
• Importance of education and knowledge
• Respect for women
• "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" – the world is one family
• "Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah" – well-being of all beings

These cultural values are reflected in the spirit of the Constitution, even if written in modern language.

Learnings from Across the World

• Inspired by the Indian thought:
• "Ā no bhadrāḥ kratavo yantu viśwatah"
• (Let noble thoughts come to me from every side)

The Constitution of India was shaped by studying other democratic constitutions around the world:

Country                                                                                 What We Adopted

France                                                         Ideals of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

USA                                                 Concept of an Independent Judiciary, Fundamental Rights

UK                                                         Parliamentary system, Rule of Law

Ireland                                                 Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs)

Australia                         Concurrent list (shared powers between Centre & States), language of the       

                                                                                                                                       Preamble

 Features of the Indian Constitution

Separation of Powers

• Defines clear roles and responsibilities of:
• Legislature – Makes laws
• Executive – Implements laws
• Judiciary – Interprets laws

Universal Adult Franchise:- Every eligible citizen has the right to vote.

Fundamental Rights

• Basic rights guaranteed to all citizens (e.g., Right to Equality, Right to Freedom, etc.)
• Can be legally enforced in courts.

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs)

• Non-enforceable, but guiding principles for governments to achieve social and economic justice.
• Meant to build a welfare state over time.

Fundamental Duties:- Moral obligations for citizens (e.g., respecting the Constitution, promoting harmony, protecting public property, etc.)

Checks and Balances:- Ensures accountability between the organs of government through a system of balance of power.

Flexibility & Adaptability:- Amendment provisions allow the Constitution to be updated as the country evolves.                                                                                                                                      

The Constitution is a Living Document

Adaptability Over Time

• The Constitution was designed to evolve with time.
• Lawmakers understood that new challenges and needs would emerge in the future.

Amendments

• Changes to the Constitution are called amendments.
• Amendments are carefully debated in:
• Parliament
• Sometimes in state legislative assemblies
• Often involve public opinion and consultations
• Popular movements can also initiate changes.

Public Participation

• Citizens can share feedback on new laws or changes.
• Government creates platforms for public engagement.

Example of Amendment:- Part IV-A: Fundamental Duties was added in 1976 through an amendment (42nd Amendment Act).

Understanding the Preamble: The Guiding Values of the Constitution

What is the Preamble?

• The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution.
• It captures the spirit, intentions, and goals of the Constitution.

Guiding Values in the Preamble

• Justice – Social, economic, and political
• Liberty – Of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship
• Equality – Of status and opportunity
• Fraternity – Ensuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the nation
• Sovereignty, Democracy, Secularism, and Republic

Citizens' Role

• Citizens are expected to follow and promote these values.
• These principles guide government policies and citizens' actions.

NCERT QUESTIONS:

1. "The Constituent Assembly had representatives from diverse backgrounds in India.” Why do you think it was important to have a diverse set of representatives from all over India? 

Answer:- A diverse set of representatives in the Constituent Assembly was extremely important for several reasons:

• To represent all communities and regions of India.
• To include different viewpoints and experiences.
• To make the Constitution fair and balanced.
• To promote national unity and trust.
• To reflect India’s "unity in diversity".
• To create a strong, inclusive, and thoughtful Constitution.

2. Read the statements below carefully and identify which key features / values in the Constitution of India are reflected in each statement.

 a. Sheena, Rajat, and Harsh are standing in a line. They are excited to cast their first vote in the general elections.

 b. Radha, Imon, and Harpreet study in the same class in the same school.

 c. Parents must make arrangements to ensure their children’s education. 

 d. People of all castes, genders, and religions can use the village well.

Answer:- 

1. Value Reflected: Universal Adult Franchise / Democracy
2. Value Reflected: Equality
3. Value Reflected: Fundamental Duty
4. Value Reflected: Right to Equality / Social Justice / Fraternity

3. It is said that ‘All citizens in India are equal before the law’. Do you think this is a fact? If yes, why? If not, why not? Formulate your arguments.

Answer:- 

Yes, it is a fact (In principle):

• Guaranteed by the Constitution – Article 14 of the Indian Constitution states that “The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law.”
• Same laws for all – Whether rich or poor, male or female, the same laws apply to everyone.
• Equal rights – Everyone has the right to vote, access education, and seek justice.
• Protection of Fundamental Rights – Citizens can go to court if their rights are violated.

Not always a fact (In reality):

• Wealth and Influence Matter – Sometimes, wealthy or powerful people get special treatment, like faster bail or lighter punishment.
•  Social Discrimination – People still face caste, religion, or gender discrimination, especially in rural areas.
• Unequal Access to Justice – Poor or marginalized groups often can’t afford legal help or don't know their rights.
• Law enforcement is not always fair – In practice, bias and corruption can affect how laws are applied.

4. You have learnt that ‘India is the only country that provided universal adult franchise to its citizens from the beginning.’ Can you explain why India did it? 

Answer:- India provide universal adult franchise from the beginning?

• Belief in Equality:- India wanted to treat all citizens as equal, regardless of caste, class, gender, or education.
• Democracy for All:- The leaders believed true democracy means every adult should have a say in choosing the government.
• Learning from the Freedom Struggle:- The Indian freedom movement involved people from all backgrounds, so giving all adults the right to vote honored their role.
• Unity in Diversity:-Universal voting rights helped build unity in a diverse nation by including everyone in the democratic process.
• A Bold Step for Equality:- Unlike many countries that gave voting rights in stages, India wanted to set an example by trusting its people fully from the start.

5. How did the freedom struggle inspire the making of the Constitution of India? How did India’s civilisational heritage inspire some of the key features in the Constitution of India? Explain. 

Answer:-  The freedom struggle inspire the Constitution?

• It brought values like equality, justice, freedom, and democracy.
• Leaders from the struggle helped shape the Constitution.
• It promoted unity in diversity and fundamental rights.

How did India’s civilisational heritage inspire the Constitution?

• The idea of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (world is one family) inspired unity.
• Respect for knowledge, diversity, and religions shaped secularism and pluralism.
• Traditions of justice and fairness influenced Fundamental Rights and social justice.

6. Do you think we, as a society, have achieved all the ideals of the Constitution? If not, what can we each do as citizens to move our country closer to these ideals?

Answer:- Have we achieved all the ideals of the Constitution?

• Not completely.
• There are still challenges like inequality, discrimination, and poverty.

What can we do as citizens?

• Respect others’ rights and differences.
• Vote responsibly and participate in democracy.
• Educate ourselves and others about rights and duties.
• Work against social injustice and help those in need.
• Follow laws and promote equality and justice.

Chapter - 1, TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS

Chapter - 1,  TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS

Map 1 – by Al-Idrisi (1154 CE):

• Created by Arab geographer Al-Idrisi.
• Shows the Indian subcontinent as part of a larger world map.
• South India appears at the top – the map is upside down by today’s standards.
• Place names are written in Arabic.
• Reflects the knowledge and perceptions of the world from an Arab-Muslim perspective at the time.
• Emphasis is not on geographical accuracy but on important trade routes and cities.

Map 2 – by a French Cartographer (1720s):

• Made by a European (French) cartographer.
• More modern and accurate in terms of shape and direction.
• Uses European mapping techniques.
• Names and directions are closer to what we see in modern maps.
• North is shown at the top, as is common today.

Famous Place Names:

• Kanauj in present-day Uttar Pradesh is visible in Al-Idrisi's map, written as Qanauj in Arabic.
• Shows that some cities were already well-known centres of culture and power by the 12th century.

Comparison of Map 1 and Map 2 (Time Gap – ~600 years):

• In the 600 years between the two maps, the knowledge about India grew significantly.
• Map 2 (1720s) is more detailed, especially around coastal regions.
• Reflects the influence of European exploration, trade, and colonization.

Purpose and Usage:

• Map 2 was used by European sailors and merchants.
• Helped them in navigation and trade during the Age of Exploration.
• More scientific and practical in nature.

New and Old Terminologies – Important Notes

1. Language and Its Changing Nature:

• Historical records were written in different languages over time (Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, etc.).
• These languages have changed significantly — not just in grammar and vocabulary, but also in meanings of words.

2. Example – The Term “Hindustan”:

• Today: "Hindustan" usually means India as a country.
• 13th century: Minhaj-i-Siraj used it to refer only to Punjab, Haryana, and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna – in a political sense.
• It did not include South India.
• 16th century: Babur used "Hindustan" to describe India’s geography, animals, and people – more of a cultural and natural description.
• Amir Khusrau in the 14th century used "Hind" in a similar sense.
• The term "Hindustan" had no fixed meaning and did not carry a national identity like it does today.

3. Changing Meaning of “Foreigner”:

• Today: A foreigner is someone from another country.
• Medieval Period: A foreigner was anyone not from your village or community.
• Could be from a different religion, caste, or region.
• Example: A city dweller might consider a forest dweller a foreigner.
• Words used:
• In Hindi: Ajnabi or pardesi
• In Persian: Ghair

4. Why This Matters for Historians:

• Historians must be very careful when interpreting old terms.
• Words used centuries ago might have different meanings than what we understand today.

 Historians and Their Sources

1. Sources Used to Study the Past (700–1750 CE):

• Historians study different types of sources depending on the period:
• Earlier periods (like Gupta or Harsha): used coins, inscriptions, architecture, and texts.
• 700–1750 CE: These sources continued, but:
• The number and variety of textual records increased greatly.
• More written records became available due to cheaper paper.

2. Rise of Textual Records:- With the spread of paper, people wrote:

• Holy texts
• Chronicles of rulers
• Letters and teachings of saints
• Petitions, judicial records, account books, and tax registers
• These records were collected in libraries and archives by:
• Wealthy individuals
• Temples
• Monasteries
• Rulers

3. Manuscripts and the Role of Scribes:

• No printing press at that time – all manuscripts were handwritten.
• Scribes copied texts manually, often introducing:
• Errors
• Changes in words or sentences (intentionally or by mistake)
• Over time, these small differences grew, and:
• Same text could look very different in different manuscripts.

Problem for Historians:

• Since original versions are often lost, historians must:
• Compare different versions of manuscripts.
• Try to guess what the original text might have said.

4. Revisions by Authors:

• Sometimes, even authors themselves revised their works.
• Example: A 14th-century chronicler wrote one version of a text, then another version two years later.
• These versions were different.
• One version was lost for a long time, hidden in a library.

New Social and Political Groups

1. Period of Big Changes (700–1750 CE):

The period saw many developments in:- Technology, Agriculture, Trade, Society, Politics

New technologies introduced:

• Persian wheel for irrigation
• Spinning wheel for weaving

New crops introduced from other parts of the world:

• Potatoes, corn, chillies, tea, and coffee
• These changes came with the arrival of new people and ideas, leading to economic, social, and cultural transformations.

2. Mobility and Migration:

• People moved across regions in search of wealth and opportunities.
• The Indian subcontinent attracted many due to its richness and resources.

3. Rise of the Rajputs:- "Rajput" comes from "Rajaputra" meaning "son of a ruler".

• Between the 8th and 14th centuries, the term described a group of warriors claiming Kshatriya status.
• Included:- Rulers, chieftains, soldiers, and commanders
• Rajputs were known for:- Valour,  Loyalty,  Heroism, praised by poets and bards

4. Rise of Other Groups:

• Marathas, Jats, Sikhs, Ahoms, and Kayasthas also became influential.
• Kayasthas were a caste of scribes and secretaries.

5. Agricultural Expansion and Social Changes:- Forests were cleared and agriculture expanded.

• Forest dwellers either:- Migrated, Or became peasants (farmers).
• These peasants became part of a complex social structure: Paid taxes,  Gave services and goods to landlords, priests, temples.

6. Social Differentiation and Jatis:- Society became divided into many groups or jatis (sub-castes). Status of jatis depended on:

• Occupation
• Family background
• Region (status could vary from one place to another)

Each jati:

• Had its own rules and customs
• These were enforced by jati panchayats (assemblies of elders)
• Jatis also followed village-level rules and were part of the larger state system.

Region and Empire

1. Large Empires and Diverse Regions:-  Some rulers built vast empires covering many regions of the Indian subcontinent.

• Example: A ruler's empire extended from:
• Bengal (Gauda) in the east
• To Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west
• Included all of South India (Dravida)

2. Diversity of People and Places:

• The empire included many different cultural and linguistic regions, such as:-  Gauda (Bengal), Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra
• People from these areas had their own identities, languages, and traditions.

3. Praising the King (Literary Sources):

• Inscriptions and literary texts (like prashastis, or royal eulogies) praised the king.
• These sources described the extent of the kingdom and glorified the ruler’s achievements.

4. Regional Identity by 700 CE:- By 700 CE, many regions had:

• Their own geographical identity
• Languages
• Cultural features
• These characteristics made each region distinct.

5. Rise of Pan-Regional Empires:- Powerful dynasties like:

• Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs, Mughals
• These empires ruled across many regions (called pan-regional empires).

6. Decline and Regional Re-Emergence:

• When the Mughal Empire declined in the 18th century, many regional states re-emerged.
• These regions were now shaped by the legacy of earlier large and small kingdoms.

7. Lasting Impact of Empires:- Empires influenced:

• Governance, Economy, Elite culture, Language
• These influences remained even after the empire ended.

8. Blending of Regional and Pan-Regional Cultures:

• While regions developed their own identity, they also:
• Felt the influence of larger empires (pan-regional forces)
• Shared traditions across regions
• But they never lost their distinct regional uniqueness.

 Old and New Religions

1. Major Religious Developments (700–1750 CE):

• Religion during this time became both personal and collective.
• It was often linked to social and economic life of communities.
• As societies changed, so did their beliefs and religious practices.

2. Changes in Hinduism:

• New forms of Hinduism emerged:
• Worship of new deities
• Temples were built by kings and rulers.
• Brahmanas (priests) gained more power and social importance.
• Rulers supported Brahmanas to gain prestige and legitimacy.

3. Emergence of Bhakti Movement:

• A major religious change of this period.
• Focused on:
• Devotion to a personal god
• Love and faith over rituals
• Reaching God directly – no need for priests or elaborate ceremonies.
• This made religion more inclusive and accessible.

4. Introduction and Spread of Islam:

• Islam was introduced in India in the 7th century by:
• Traders, Merchants, Sufi saints
• Core beliefs of Islam:- One God (Allah), Belief in the Quran
• Allah’s love and mercy applies to everyone, regardless of social background.

5. Islamic Traditions and Diversity:

• Islam was supported by many rulers.
• Theologians and jurists (religious scholars) helped develop Islamic traditions.
• Different interpretations of Islam emerged:
• Some believed Ali (Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law) was the rightful leader – beginning of Shia tradition.
• Others followed the early Khalifas – part of Sunni tradition.
• Mystical traditions like Sufism also spread during this time.

Thinking About Time and Historical Periods

1. What is Historical Time?

• Historians don't see time as just dates and years.
• They study how ideas, beliefs, and societies change or continue over time.
• To make history easier to understand, historians divide it into periods with common features.

2. Old British Periodisation:- In the 19th century, British historians divided Indian history into 3 periods:-  Hindu Period,  Muslim Period,  British Period

Problems with this system:

• It focused only on the religion of rulers.
• It ignored the rich diversity and everyday lives of people.
• It is not used by modern historians anymore.

3. What Modern Historians Focus On:

• Economic and social changes
• Political developments
• Religious transformations
• Cultural shifts
• For example, this book covers:
• The rise of peasant societies
• The growth of empires
• The spread of Hinduism and Islam
• The arrival of European traders

4. Medieval vs. Modern:

• The period from 700 to 1750 CE is often called "medieval".
• It is sometimes wrongly seen as unchanging or backward compared to the "modern" era.
• But in reality, this period saw major economic, social, and political transformations.
• Example: Indian regions became so prosperous that they attracted European traders.

5. Understanding Change and Continuity:

• While reading history, look for:
• What changed over time
• What stayed the same (continuity)
• Compare past events with what you see around you today.

NCERT QUESTIONS:-

1. Who was considered a “foreigner” in the past? 

Answer:- The term could also be used for people who were not part of a specific community or local culture, even if they were from the same broader geographical area.

2. State Whether True or False

• (a). We do not find inscription for the period after 700. (False)
• (b) The Marathas asserted their political importance during this period. (True)
• (c) Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out  of their lands with the spread of agricultural settlements.     (True)
• (d) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam, Manipur, and Kashmir.       (False)

3. Fill in the blanks.

• (a) Archives are places where _______________ are  kept.
• (b) _______________ was a fourteenth-century  chronicler.
• (c) _____, _____, _____, _____ and _____ were some  of the new crops introduced into the subcontinent during this period. 

Answers:- 

(a) Archives are places where manuscripts are kept.

(b) Amir Khusrau was a fourteenth-century chronicler.

(c) Potatoes, corn, chillies, tea, and coffee.

4. List some of the technologial changes associates with this period.

Answer:- 

• Persian Wheel for Irrigation:- The Persian wheel was an important technological innovation in irrigation.
• Spinning Wheel for Weaving:- The spinning wheel revolutionized the production of cotton and other textiles.
• New Crops Introduced:- Potatoes, corn, chillies, tea, and coffee were introduced during this period,

5. What were some of the major religious developments during this period?

Answer:- 

• Growth of major religions: Islam spread in the Indian subcontinent with the arrival of Turks and Afghans.
• New religious ideas: Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged, promoting devotion and love for God.
• Regional developments: Local deities and temples gained importance in different regions.
• Influence of saints: Saints like Kabir, Guru Nanak, and others spread messages beyond caste and religion.
• Religious texts: Many religious books were written in local languages, making religion more accessible.

6.  In what ways has the meaning of the term “Hindustan”changed over the centuries? 

• Answer:- The meaning of the term “Hindustan” has changed over time in the following ways:
• Early use (13th century): Used by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a Persian chronicler, to refer to the areas around Punjab, Haryana, and the Ganga–Yamuna doab.
• Medieval period: Later, it came to mean the whole of northern India, especially under Delhi Sultanate rule.
• Modern sense: Gradually, it started to refer to the entire Indian subcontinent as a nation.

7. How were the affairs of jatis regulated? 

Answer:- The affairs of jatis (castes) were regulated in the following ways:

• Jati Panchayat: Each jati had its own panchayat (council) to enforce rules and settle disputes.
• Rules and customs: They followed customary rules related to marriage, food, occupation, etc.
• Village organization: Jatis were part of the village system and also had to follow local administrative rules.
• Occupational roles: Jatis were often linked to specific occupations and had internal codes of conduct.

8. What doesthe  pan-regional empire mean?

Answer:- A pan-regional empire means:

• An empire that covered a large area across many regions.
• It ruled over different cultures, languages, and geographies.
• Examples include the Mughal Empire and the Delhi Sultanate, which controlled vast parts of the Indian subcontinent.

9. What are the difficulties Historians face in using manuscripts?

Answer:- Historians face several difficulties in using manuscripts, such as:

• Handwritten text: Manuscripts were copied by hand, so they often had errors or differences in versions.
• Faded or damaged: Many manuscripts are old and damaged, making them hard to read.
• Different scripts and languages: They were written in various scripts and languages, which not all historians can read.
• Lack of dates: Many manuscripts don’t mention clear dates, making it hard to place them in history.
• Biases: Writers often wrote from the point of view of kings or elites, not common people.

10. How do historians divide the past into periods? Do they face any problems in doing so?

Answer:- Historians divide the past into ancient, medieval, and modern periods based on major changes in society, politics, and culture.

Problems they face:

• The divisions may not fit Indian history well (European bias).
• They can oversimplify complex events.
• Different people may view changes differently.

11. Compare either Map 1 or Map 2 with the present-day map of the subcontinent, listing as many similarities and differences as you can find.

Answer:- 

Similarities:

• Geographical features: Major rivers like the Ganges, Indus, and Yamuna remain in the same locations.
• Borders: Key regions like Punjab, Bengal, and Gujarat continue to be important in the present day.

Differences:

• Political boundaries: The present-day map shows countries like India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, while the historical map might only show regions of one unified area.
• Division of states: In ancient and medieval maps, regions might be labeled as parts of empires or kingdoms, while modern maps show individual states or countries.
• Urbanization: Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata might not have been as prominent or developed in earlier times.

12. Find out where records are kept in your village or city. Who writes these records? Is there an archive? Who manages it? What kinds of documents are stored there? Who are the people who use it? 

Answer:- In village or city:

• Records are kept in local government offices (e.g., municipal or district offices).
• Who writes these records?: Government officials like clerks or administrative staff.
• Archive: Some areas have archives, managed by government departments.
• Documents stored: Land records, birth/death certificates, legal papers, and historical documents.
• Users: Researchers, lawyers, students, and citizens needing information.