Chapter - 4 Climate

 Chapter - 4 Climate

Weather:- Weather refers to the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It includes elements like temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed, etc. Example: "It is raining today in Delhi."

Climate:- Climate is the average weather pattern of a place over a long period of time (usually 30 years or more). It describes general atmospheric conditions like overall temperature, rainfall, etc., of a region. Example: "India has a monsoon climate."

Climate of India

• India has a monsoon type climate.
• Influenced by latitude, altitude, and relief features.

3. Factors Affecting India’s Climate

Latitude

• The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) passes almost through the middle of India.
• It divides the country into two climate zones:
• Tropical zone (south of the Tropic): Hot throughout the year with less seasonal variation.
• Example: Chennai – remains warm even in winter.
• Subtropical zone (north of the Tropic): Has hot summers and cold winters.
• Example: Delhi – very hot in summer and cold in winter.

Altitude

• Temperature decreases as we go higher above sea level.
• Example: Shimla (in the hills) is cooler than Delhi, even though both are in the north.

• Pressure and Winds – Includes monsoon winds, jet streams, and western disturbances.
• Distance from the Sea – Coastal areas have moderate climate; interiors are extreme.
• Relief – Hills and mountains affect temperature and rainfall patterns.

Pressure and Winds:- Atmospheric pressure and winds play a major role in deciding the climate of India. The movement of air from high-pressure to low-pressure areas causes winds, which bring changes in temperature and rainfall.

Coriolis Force:-  The Coriolis Force is a force caused by the rotation of the Earth. It affects the direction of winds and ocean currents.

• It deflects moving air (winds) and water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Because India is in the Northern Hemisphere, winds here get deflected to the right.
• It carry moisture and bring rain.

During Winter:- There is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow from this region to the low-pressure area over the oceans to the south.

Summer (Southwest Monsoon):- Low-pressure area develops over interior Asia, as well as, over northenwestern India. This cause a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern 

indian Ocean.

Indian Monsoon

• Monsoon: Seasonal reversal of winds bringing rainfall.
• Summer Monsoon (June–Sept): Moist winds from the sea to land → rainfall.
• Winter Monsoon (Oct–Feb): Dry winds from land to sea → less rain (except east coast).
• Retreating Monsoon (Oct–Nov): Withdrawal of monsoon; causes cyclones in Bay of Bengal.

Seasons in India

1. Cold Weather Season (Dec–Feb):- This season is known as winter in India. It lasts from December to February.
Key Features:

• Cool Temperatures:
• The northern plains become very cold, especially in January.
• Example: Delhi, Amritsar, and Srinagar experience low temperatures.
• The southern parts of India (like Chennai and Kochi) remain warm.
• Clear Skies and Dry Weather:
• The weather is mostly clear with little rainfall in most areas.
• Humidity is low.
• Western Disturbances:
• These are winds that come from the Mediterranean Sea.
• They bring light rain to north and northwest India, especially Punjab and Haryana.
• Mahawat:- Winter rainfall locally known as "Mahawat".
• This rain is important for the rabi crops like wheat.
• High Pressure Over Land:
• A high-pressure area forms over north India.
• Winds blow from the land to the sea, which makes the season dry.

2. Hot Weather Season (Mar–May):- 

High Temperatures:

• Temperatures rise steadily throughout the country.
• Example: Northern plains like Delhi, Jaipur, and Lucknow often see temperatures above 40°C in May.
• Central India becomes extremely hot, especially in areas like Nagpur.

Low Pressure Over North India:

• Due to the intense heat, a low-pressure area develops over northwestern India.
• This low pressure attracts moist winds from the sea, which later helps bring the monsoon.

Hot and Dry Winds – "Loo":

• In northern India, hot, dry winds called Loo blow in the afternoons during May and June.
• These winds can cause heatstroke and are dangerous.

Local Thunderstorms:

• In eastern India, especially in West Bengal and Assam, strong winds with rain and thunderstorms occur.
• These storms are called "Kalbaisakhi" or Nor’westers.
• They help cool down the region and are useful for early crops.

Dust Storms:- In northwestern India, occasional dust storms occur, which may bring light rain.

3. Advancing Monsoon (Rainy Season – June to September):- This season is also called the monsoon season and is the main rainy season in India.

Key Features:

Arrival of the Monsoon:

• The Southwest Monsoon winds begin to blow from the sea toward the land.
• These winds carry a lot of moisture from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
• First hits Kerala around June 1, then spreads across the country.

Heavy Rainfall:

• These winds bring heavy rainfall to most parts of India.
• Western Ghats, Northeast India, and coastal areas receive very high rainfall.
• Example: Mawsynram in Meghalaya gets the highest rainfall in the world.

Two Branches of Monsoon:

• Arabian Sea Branch: Hits the Western Ghats, giving heavy rain to Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra.
• Bay of Bengal Branch: Moves towards northeast India, then towards the north and northwest.

Breaks in Monsoon:- Rain does not fall continuously; it comes in intervals. These gaps are called "breaks in monsoon."

Effect on Agriculture:-  Monsoon rains are very important for farming in India. Farmers depend on this season to grow rice, cotton, sugarcane, etc.

Retreating Monsoon / Transition Season (October–November):- This season marks the withdrawal of the monsoon from India and is also called the post-monsoon or transition period.

Key Features:

Withdrawal of Monsoon:

• The Southwest Monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India by early October.
• It gradually moves out of the country by mid-November.

Clear Skies and Rising Temperatures (October Heat):

• After the rain stops, skies become clear.
• The temperature remains high during the day, especially in southern India.
• This hot and humid weather in October is called “October Heat.”

Shift in Pressure and Wind Pattern:

• The low-pressure area shifts to the Bay of Bengal.
• Winds change direction and start blowing from land to sea.

Rainfall in Tamil Nadu and Coastal Andhra Pradesh:

• The Northeast Monsoon winds pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
• These bring rainfall to Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Kerala.

Cyclones:

• This season is also known for cyclonic storms in the Bay of Bengal.
• These can cause heavy damage, especially along the eastern coast.

Distribution of Rainfall:- Rainfall in India is unevenly distributed. Some areas receive very heavy rainfall, while others get very little.

1. Areas of High Rainfall (More than 200 cm per year):- Found in the Western Ghats, Northeast India, and Himalayan foothills. Example: 

• Mawsynram (Meghalaya) – highest rainfall in the world.
• Western coast – Kerala, Karnataka, and Goa.
• Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

2. Areas of Moderate Rainfall (100–200 cm per year):
Found in most of the northern plains, eastern Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and parts of the Deccan Plateau. Examples:- West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra (some parts).
3. Areas of Low Rainfall (50–100 cm per year):- Includes interior Deccan, central Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana. Rainfall is less but still enough for some crops.
4. Areas of Very Low Rainfall (Below 50 cm per year):- Found in desert and semi-desert areas.  Examples:- Western Rajasthan (like Jaisalmer), Parts of Ladakh.

Monsoon as a Unifying Bond:- Although India has diverse geography, cultures, and languages, the monsoon acts as a unifying force that brings the whole country together.

Temeperature in Different region

• Himalayas protect the subcontinent from extermely cold winds from central asia. Northen India to have uniformly higher temperatures compared to other areas on same latitudes.
• Peninsular Plateau:- Under the influence of the sea from three sides, has moderate temeperatures. 

Monsoon:- Most parts of India wait eagerly for the monsoon rains, especially after the hot summer.

• The arrival of monsoon is celebrated across regions in different ways, showing its emotional and cultural importance.
• A large part of India’s population depends on farming, and most crops need monsoon rain.
• Example: Crops like rice, sugarcane, and cotton are mainly grown with monsoon water.
• So, farmers across India share the same hope and concern for good rainfall.

Chapter - 6 Population

Chapter - 6  Population 

What is Population? :- Population refers to the total number of people living in a country at a specific time.

Population Size and Distribution

• As per the Census 2011, India's population was over 1.21 billion.
• Population is unevenly distributed across states:
• Highly populated: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar
• Less populated: Sikkim, Mizoram, Lakshadweep

Population Density: Number of people living per square kilometer.

• Population Density = Total Population / Land Area
• High Density: Delhi, Bihar
• Low Density: Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram

Population Growth:- The increase in the number of people over time. Two types of growth

• Natural Growth = Birth rate – Death rate
• Actual Growth = Natural Growth + Migration

 Birth Rate, Death Rate & Migration

• Birth Rate: Number of births per 1,000 people per year
• Death Rate: Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year
• Migration: Movement of people from one place to another
• In-migration: Moving into a place
• External-migration: Moving out from on country to another country

Characteristics of Population (Population Composition)

• Age structure: Children, working-age, elderly
• Sex ratio: Number of females per 1000 males
• Literacy rate: % of people aged 7+ who can read and write
• Occupational structure:
• Primary (agriculture)
• Secondary (industry)
• Tertiary (services)

Census:- An official count of the population, held every 10 years in India.

Health:- Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being.

Adolescents:- Adolescents are, generallly, grouped in the age of 10 to 19 years.

National Population Policy (NPP):- Launched in: 2000, The National Population Policy (NPP) is a policy created by the Government of India to manage and stabilize the country’s growing population and improve the quality of life for its people.

Main Goal: 

• Compulsary education up to 14 years of age.
• Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births
• Reduce maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 100,000 live births
• Achieve universal immunization of children
• Promote delayed marriage for girls (minimum age: 18 years)
• Encourage small family norms

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Chapter - 3 Drainage

Chapter - 3  Drainage 

What is Drainage?

• Drainage refers to the river system of an area.
• A drainage basin is the area drained by a single river system.
• A watershed is the boundary that separates two drainage basins.

Drainage Basin

• A drainage basin is the area of land where all the water drains into a single river system.
• It includes the main river and all its tributaries.
• Think of it like a bowl: all the rain falling inside it flows toward the bottom (the main river).

Water Divide (Watershed)

• A water divide is a highland or elevated area that separates two drainage basins.
• Water falling on one side of the divide flows into one river system, and on the other side, it flows into another.

2. Drainage Systems in India :- India has two major types of drainage systems:

a. Himalayan Rivers

• Perennial (flow all year round)
• Fed by glaciers and rain
• Long courses from source to sea
• Example: Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus

b. Peninsular Rivers

• Seasonal (depend on rainfall)
• Shorter and shallower
• Flow through plateaus and hills
• Example: Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Mahanadi, Kaveri

Indus River System

Origin:

The Indus River originates in Tibet, near Lake Mansarovar, on the northern slopes of the Kailash Range.

Path / Course:

• Flows northwest into Ladakh (India) through the Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir.
• Then enters Pakistan near the town of Leh at Gilgit-Baltistan.
• Flows through Pakistan and finally drains into the Arabian Sea near Karachi.

Length:

• Total Length: Approximately 2,900 km
• One of the longest rivers in the world.

Main Tributaries:

On the left bank:- Sutlej, Beas, Ravi

On the right bank: - Jhelum, Chenab

Governed by the Indus Water Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank.

Ganga River System (Ganga River Basin)

Origin:

• The Ganga River originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Uttarakhand Himalayas.
• Its initial name is Bhagirathi.
• At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda, and from there it is called the Ganga.

Length:

• About 2,500 km long.
• One of the longest rivers in India.

Tributaries: - Left Bank Tributaries (join from the north):

Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, 

These come from the Himalayas and often cause floods.

Right Bank Tributaries (join from the south):

Yamuna (most important; joins at Prayagraj / Allahabad), Son River, Tons River

Course / States it Flows Through:

• Uttarakhand → Uttar Pradesh → Bihar → Jharkhand → West Bengal
• In West Bengal, it splits into two:
• Bhagirathi-Hooghly (flows through India)
• Padma (flows into Bangladesh)

Mouth (Where it Ends):

The Ganga empties into the Bay of Bengal, forming the Sundarbans Delta – the largest delta in the world.

Brahmaputra River System

Origin:

• The Brahmaputra River originates in Tibet, near Lake Mansarovar.
• In Tibet, it is called Tsangpo (or Yarlung Tsangpo).

Entry in India:

• The river enters India through Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as Dihang.
• After entering Assam, it is called the Brahmaputra.

Length:

• Approx. 2,900 km (like the Indus).
• Flows through Tibet → India → Bangladesh.

Tributaries:- In Arunachal Pradesh & Assam:

Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Teesta (joins in Bangladesh)

These tributaries increase the volume and strength of the river, especially during the monsoon.

Riverine Island:

• Majuli Island in Assam is formed by the Brahmaputra.
• It is the largest riverine island in the world (now shrinking due to erosion).

Features of Brahmaputra:

• Unlike other Himalayan rivers, it carries more water and silt during the monsoon.
• Causes frequent floods in Assam and surrounding areas.
• Has a braided channel and shifts course often:- Braided channel reduced stream flow or an increase sediment loads.

The Peninsular Rivers:- 

Narmada and Tapi Rivers :- Both are important west-flowing rivers in India that drain into the Arabian Sea.

1. Narmada River

• Origin:- Rises from the Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh.
• Flow Direction:- Flows westward through a rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges.
• Drains Into:- Arabian Sea
• Creates:- Estuary (not delta) at its mouth.
• Beautiful waterfalls like:- Dhuandhar Falls near Jabalpur.
• Special Features:- Forms many gorges and waterfalls.
• Area Covered:- Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat

2. Tapi (Tapti) River

• Origin:- Rises from the Satpura ranges near Multai in Madhya Pradesh.
• Flow Direction:- Flows westward through a rift valley. Parallel to Narmada.
• Drains Into:- Arabian Sea
• Area Covered:- Passes through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

3. Godavari River

• Origin:- Rises from the Trimbak Plateau in the Nashik district of Maharashtra.
• Length:- About 1,465 km – Longest river in Peninsular India.
• Flow Direction:- Flows eastward and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Drains Into:- Bay of Bengal, forming a large delta.
• Major Tributaries:- Left Bank: Purna, Pranhita, Indravati, Sabari
• Right Bank:- Manjira, Maner
• Also Known As:- The Dakshin Ganga or Ganga of the South because of its size and cultural importance.
• States it Flows Through:- Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha

4. Mahanadi River

• Origin:- Rises in the Sihawa hills of Chhattisgarh.
• Length:- Around 860 km.
• Flow Direction:- Flows eastward and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Drains Into:- Bay of Bengal, forming a delta.
• States it Flows Through:- Chhattisgarh and Odisha

5. Krishna River

• Origin:- Rises from Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats, Maharashtra.
• Length:- Approximately 1,400 km long.
• Major Tributaries: -Left Bank: Bhima, Musi
• Right Bank: Koyna, Tungabhadra, Ghatprabha, Malaprabha
• States it Flows Through:- Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh
• Drains Into:-Bay of Bengal, forming a delta.

6. Kaveri (Cauvery) River

• Origin:- Rises from Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri Hills, Western Ghats, Karnataka.
• Length:- About 760 km long.
• Major Tributaries:- Left Bank: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha
• Right Bank: Lakshmana Tirtha, Amaravati, Bhavani
• Flow Direction:- Flows southeast and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• States it Flows Through:
• Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (also touches Kerala and Puducherry)

Lakes:- A lake is a naturally occurring, relatively large and fixed body of water on earth surface and surrounded by land.

Lagoons:- A lake of salt water that is seperated from the sea by sand or rock.

Ox-bow Lake:- An ox-bow lake is the crescent-shaped lake that forms when a cut-off meander gets completely isolated from the river.

Why called "Ox-bow"?:- Because its shape looks like the yoke (bow) used on oxen.

Cut-off:- A cut-off is formed when a river changes its course, usually during a flood. Rivers in plains often meander (take winding curves). When a meander becomes very curved, the river may cut across the narrow neck during floods, creating a new, shorter channel.

Value of Lakes and Rivers for Economy

1. Source of Water

2. Irrigation

3. Hydroelectric Power

4. Fishing

5. Recreation & Tourism

6. Climate Control

7. Flood Control

8. Habitat for Wildlife

Reasons for River Pollution

1. Industrial Waste

2. Sewage Disposal

3. Religious Activities

4. Agricultural Runoff

5. Plastic and Garbage

6. Bathing and Washing

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Chapter - 2 Physical Features of India

 Chapter - 2 Physical Features of India

The Himalayan Mountains

Location & Importance:

• Stretch along the northern border of India.
• Extend from Indus River (west) to Brahmaputra River (east).
• Approximate length: 2,400 km
• Width: 400 km (Kashmir) to 150 km (Arunachal Pradesh)
• The Himalayas act as a natural barrier, protect from cold winds, and influence monsoon patterns.

Formation:

• Formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate.
• This is a fold mountain range – still rising due to tectonic activity.

Three Parallel Ranges:

1. Himadri (Greater Himalayas)

• Northernmost and highest range.
• Average height: Above 6,000 meters.
• Includes world’s highest peaks:
• Mount Everest (8,848 m) – Nepal
• Kanchenjunga (8,586 m) – India-Nepal border
• Covered with snow and glaciers all year round.

2. Himachal (Middle Himalayas)

• Lies south of Himadri.
• Height: 3,700 to 4,500 meters
• Made of folded and compressed rocks.
• Rich in forests.
• Famous hill stations: Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, etc.

3. Shiwalik (Outer Himalayas)

• Southernmost range.
• Height: 900 to 1,100 meters
• Made of unconsolidated sediments (youngest).
• Prone to landslides and earthquakes.
• Narrow valleys between Shiwaliks and Himachal = Duns (e.g., Dehradun)

Regional Divisions of the Himalayas (West to East):

• Punjab Himalayas – Between Indus and Satluj
• Kumaon Himalayas – Between Satluj and Kali
• Nepal Himalayas – Between Kali and Tista
• Assam Himalayas – Between Tista and Dihang

Purvachal Hills (Eastern Hills) :-  Location:

• These hills lie east of the Himalayas in the northeastern states of India.
• They are part of the Eastern extension of the Himalayas.
• It comprises :- Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills)

The Northern Plains

Location & Formation :- Lies south of the Himalayas and stretches from Punjab in the west to Assam in the east.

Formed by the deposition of alluvial soil by three major rivers:

• Indus
• Ganga
• Brahmaputra

These rivers, along with their tributaries, brought fine soil from the mountains and deposited it over millions of years, forming the fertile Northern Plains.

Riverine island :- Solid foundation and a place between two parallel rivers or in the middle of the river.

Distributaries:- A branch of river that does not return to the main stream after leaving.

Size

• Spread over an area 7 lakh sq.km.
• Length: about 2,400 km
• Width: 240 to 320 km
• Very fertile and flat, ideal for agriculture.
• Densely populated due to flat land, fertile soil, and water availability.

Importance

• Known as the "Granary of India".
• Supports major crops: wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses.
• Well-developed irrigation and transport systems.

Divisions of the Northern Plains

1. Punjab Plains

• Formed by the Indus and its tributaries (Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Jhelum).
• Mostly in Punjab and Haryana.
• Western part of the plains.

2. Ganga Plains

• Formed by the Ganga and its tributaries.
• Spread across Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal.
• Most extensive and agriculturally productive part.

3. Brahmaputra Plains

• Found in Assam.
• Formed by the Brahmaputra River.
• Known for heavy flooding and silt deposits.

Based on Relief (Land Features):

1. Bhabar

• Narrow belt along the foothills of the Himalayas.
• Pebbly, streams disappear here.

2. Terai

• South of Bhabar.
• Marshy and swampy, good for growing rice and sugarcane.

3. Bhangar

• Older alluvium, slightly raised and less fertile.
• Has calcareous deposits called Kankar.

4. Khadar

• New alluvium, very fertile, renewed every year by floods.
• Best for agriculture.

The Peninsular Plateau

What is the Peninsular Plateau?

• It is a broad, high land area made of ancient, hard rocks.
• Located south of the Northern Plains.
• Triangular in shape, with:
• Base in the north (Vindhya and Satpura ranges)
• Apex towards the south
• It is the oldest landmass of the Indian subcontinent (part of the ancient Gondwana land).

Formation

• Formed due to volcanic and tectonic activities.
• Made mostly of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Rich in minerals and natural resources.

Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau

1. Central Highlands

• Located north of the Narmada River.
• Includes:
• Malwa Plateau (northwestern part)
• Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand (eastern part)
• Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand, rich in coal and minerals)
• Slopes from southwest to northeast.

2. Deccan Plateau

• Lies south of the Narmada River.
• Bounded by:
• Western Ghats (steep, block mountains)
• Eastern Ghats (dissected and lower in height)
• Covers parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
• Slopes from west to east (so rivers flow into Bay of Bengal).

Important Hill Ranges in the Plateau:

• Aravalli Hills (oldest, northwest)
• Vindhya and Satpura ranges (central India)
• Western Ghats (higher, source of many rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri)
• Eastern Ghats (broken, lower)

Feature                             Western Ghats                                                                 Eastern Ghats

Location             Runs parallel to the western coast                     Runs parallel to the eastern coast

Direction             From Gujarat to Kerala                                     From Odisha to Tamil Nadu

Height             Higher – average 900–1,600 meters                     Lower – average 600 meters

Continuity     Continuous range (difficult to cross)                     Discontinuous range (broken hills)

River Flow     Rivers rise here and flow eastward               Rivers cut through them to reach the sea

Rainfall             Causes heavy rainfall on west coast                     Receives less rainfall

Vegetation     Dense forests, biodiversity hotspot                     Less dense forests

Highest Peak     Anai Mudi (2,695 m, Kerala)                             Mahendragiri (1,501 m, Odisha)

One of the distinct features of the Peninsular plateau s the black soil area known as Decean Trap.

The Indian Desert

Location

• Also known as the Thar Desert.
• Lies in the western part of Rajasthan.
• Bordered by the Aravalli Hills on the east.

Features of the Indian Desert

Feature                                                                             Description

Type of Climate                                                     Hot and dry, arid climate

Rainfall                                                                     Less than 150 mm per year

Soil Sandy soil –                                                        not very fertile

Vegetation                                                                  Sparse shrubs and thorny trees

Temperature                                                              Extreme – very hot days and cool nights

Rivers                                                                     No permanent rivers; only Luni River (seasonal)

Landforms                                                             Sand dunes (locally called "barchans") are common

The Coastal Plains

What are Coastal Plains?

• The narrow stretch of land lying between the Peninsular Plateau and the coastline of India.
• Surrounded by water on three sides – so India has two main coastal plains:
• Western Coastal Plain (along the Arabian Sea)
• Eastern Coastal Plain (along the Bay of Bengal)

1. Western Coastal Plains

Feature                                                                                     Description

Location                                                                                     Extends from Gujarat to Kerala

States Covered                                                             Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala

Width                                                                              Narrow (50–80 km wide)

Divisions -                                                                    Konkan Coast (Maharashtra-Goa),  

                                                                                               Kannad Coast (Karnataka)

                                                                                - Malabar Coast (Kerala)

Rivers                                                             Short and swift (e.g., Mandovi, Periyar)

Special Features                                             Backwaters and lagoons (especially in Kerala)

Ports                                                                 Mumbai, Mangalore, Kochi

2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Feature                                                                 Description

Location                                                 Extends from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu

States Covered                                 West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu

Width                                                 Wider than western coast (100–130 km wide)

Divisions                                              Northern Circar (Odisha to Andhra)

                                                                      Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu)

Rivers                                             Large rivers form deltas: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri

Special Features                                         Fertile deltas, important for agriculture

Ports                                                         Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Paradip

The Islands of India

What are Islands?

• Islands are land masses surrounded by water on all sides.
• India has two major groups of islands:
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands – in the Bay of Bengal
• Lakshadweep Islands – in the Arabian Sea

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Feature                                                                                 Description

Location                                                                                 Bay of Bengal

Number of Islands                                                         Around 572 islands

Type                                                                                 Mostly volcanic origin

Divisions                                                                      Andaman Islands (North),Nicobar Islands (South)

Climate                                                                         Warm and humid, tropical rainforest climate

Flora & Fauna                                                                 Rich biodiversity, tropical forests

Importance                                                                 Strategic location, tourism, biodiversity hotspot

Capital                                                                                  Port Blair

2. Lakshadweep Islands

Feature                                                         Description

Location                                                         Arabian Sea

Number of Islands                                 36 small islands and islets

Type                                                         Coral islands (atolls)

Area                                                         Around 32 sq. km (smallest Union Territory)

Flora & Fauna                                         Coconut palms, marine life

Capital                                                          Kavaratti

Main Activities                                          Fishing, coconut cultivation, tourism

Click here to download geography chapter - 2 Physical features of India

Chapter - 1 India – Size and Location

Chapter - 1  India – Size and Location

Location of India

• India is located in the Northern Hemisphere and Eastern Hemisphere.
• The mainland of India lies between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.
• The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) passes almost halfway through the country.
• India is located in South Asia, and it has a central location between East and West Asia.

Time Zone

• The standard meridian of India is 82°30'E, which is used to calculate the Indian Standard Time (IST).
• India has one time zone.

Size of India

• Total area: 3.28 million square kilometers (7th largest country in the world).
• Land boundary: About 15,200 km.
• Coastline: About 7,516.6 km (including islands).
• North to South extent: About 3,214 km.
• East to West extent: About 2,933 km.

India is bounded by the :- Young fold mountains in the northwest, north and northeast.

Latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the mainland is about = 30 degree

India’s Neighbors

• India shares land boundaries with:
• Pakistan, Afghanistan (to the northwest)
• China, Nepal, Bhutan (to the north)
• Bangladesh, Myanmar (to the east)
• India is also close to Sri Lanka and Maldives (in the south, across the Indian Ocean).
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by Palk Strait and Gulf of  Mannar.

Why is there a Two-Hour Time Lag Between Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat?

• Arunachal Pradesh is in the easternmost part of India.
• Gujarat is in the westernmost part of India.
• The Earth rotates from west to east, so the Sun rises earlier in the east than in the west.

Time Difference:

• There is a time difference of about 2 hours in sunrise between Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat.
• This is because the longitudinal distance between them is about 30 degrees.
• For every 1 degree of longitude, there is a 4-minute difference in time.
• So, 30° × 4 minutes = 120 minutes = 2 hours.

India uses a single time zone:

• India follows Indian Standard Time (IST), which is based on 82°30'E longitude.
• This keeps one standard time for the whole country, even though sunrise happens at different times in different regions.

India as the Head of the Indian Ocean – Its Significance

• India is located in the center of the Indian Ocean, and it is often called the head of the Indian Ocean. This location gives India several important advantages:

1. Strategic Location

• India lies at the crossroads of East and West Asia.
• This helps India play a major role in international trade and politics.
• India can easily access Europe, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australia through sea routes.

2. Trade and Commerce

• Most of India's trade with other countries happens through the Indian Ocean.
• Major ports like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata help India connect with the world.

3. Control Over Sea Routes

• The Indian Ocean has some of the world's busiest sea routes.
• India’s central location allows it to monitor and secure these important routes.

4. Cultural and Historical Connections

• India has strong historical ties with countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia through the Indian Ocean.
• Indian culture, religion, and trade have spread across the ocean over centuries.

5. Defense and Security

• India can protect its coastline and islands (like Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep).
• The central location helps India maintain naval strength in the region.

Click here to Download Geography, - Chapter - 1, India Size and Location