Chapter - 5 - "Print Culture and the Modern World"

Chapter - 5  - "Print Culture and the Modern World"

1. The First Printed Books

• Earliest printing technology:
• China, Japan, Korea – Woodblock printing.

In China:

• Books printed by hand.
• Rich people read books; civil service examinations increased demand for books.
• Sanghai become the hub of the new print culture
• Buddhist missionaries spread printing to Japan and Korea.
• Calligarph:- The art of beautiful and stylised writing.

1.1 Print in Japan

Introduction of Printing in Japan

• Printing arrived in Japan from China through Buddhist missionaries around the 8th century.
• Buddhist texts were the first printed materials.
• Oldest Japanese printed book:
• The Diamond Sutra (868 CE).

Edo Period and Printing

• Edo is the old name for Tokyo.
• During the Edo period, printing flourished.
• Demand for books increased because:
• Urbanization.
• High literacy among samurai, merchants, and townspeople.
• People wanted entertainment, education, and practical information.

2. The Print Revolution in Europe

• In 11th century Chinese paper reached Europe through Silk Route
• Marco Polo brought knowledge of woodblock printing from China to Europe(ITALY) (1295 CE).
• Johann Gutenberg (Germany) invented the printing press around 1430 (strasbourg) CE.
• VELLUM:- made from skin of animals. It was luxry editions were still hand written it was very expensive. Acess of this were in limited hand.

Demand for books:-

• Europe began exporting books
• Book fair were held
• Increase the demand of manuscripts.
• Book sellers began to hire scribes.

Q - Why circulation of manuscripts werre remained limites?

• Ans- It was expensive.
• Labourious and time taking.
• Fragile and awkward.
• Not easy to carry or read easily.

2.1 Gutenberg and the Printing Press

• Johann Gutenberg was from Mainz, Germany.
• He developed the first printing press with movable metal type around 1430.
• Gutenberg was originally trained as a goldsmith — he used his knowledge of metals to create the press.

Features of Gutenberg’s Printing Press

• The olive press (used to extract oil).
• The wine press (used to crush grapes).

Main invention:

• Movable metal type → individual letters could be arranged and reused.
• Printed faster than handwritten manuscripts.
• Produced books with great beauty — almost looked like hand-written calligraphy.

First Printed Book

•  Bible - 180 copies.
• Printed around 1448.
• Very high quality, with colored decorations and beautiful designs.

Q - Why the New technology did not entirely displace existing art of producing books by hand?

• Ans - Printed books looks like written manuscripts.
• The metal letters imitated the ornamental handwritten style.
• Borders were illuminated by hand with foliage
• Decoration was kept blank on printed page for rich. 

1450-1550:- Printing press were set-up in Europe.

• Printers from Germany travelled to other countries & started new press.
• boomed in production 15th century 20 million copies print and 16th century 200 million copies print.
• Platen:-  A platen is a flat metal or wooden plate. In Gutenberg’s printing press, the platen was used to press the paper firmly against the inked movable type (the letters arranged on a tray).

3 - The Print Revolution and Its Impact

Q - What was the print revolution

• Ans - It wastransformde the lives of people. 
• Transformed information and knowledg.
• Influenced popular perceptions and opened up new ways of looking at things.

3.1 A New Reading Public

Rise of the Reading Public

• With the invention of the printing press, books became cheaper and faster to produce.
• Earlier, books were expensive and only rich people, monks, and scholars could afford them.
• Now, common people could also buy and read books.

Literacy and Reading

• Literacy rates increased in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Even though many people were still illiterate, they could hear books being read aloud:
• Public readings became common.
• Books, newspapers, and pamphlets were read aloud in public spaces for all to hear.

New Types of Books:-Novels, Ballads, Folk tales, Newspapers, Journals

This widened the audience — both educated and less-educated people accessed printed material.

Effects on Society

• Knowledge spread faster among all classes.
• Created a culture where even non-literate people became part of the reading public.
• Stimulated debates, discussions, and new ideas among people.

Q - What problem raised with publishers Or Why transition was not easy/simple?

• Ans - Because literate people can read.
• 20th century rate were low in European countries.

Q - How publishers solve this problem?

• Ans - Publishers think people who can not read, they enjoy listening the books.
• Print start with pictures.
• Books were sang and recited.
• Oral culture began to printed and printed material was orally transmitted.

3.2 - Religious Debates and the fear of print

Fear of Print:- Authorities feared that:

• Print would encourage questioning of existing power and traditions.
• People would challenge religious and political authority.

The Protestant Reformation

• Martin Luther (Germany) criticized the Catholic Church.
• He wrote the famous 95 Theses (1517) against church practices like the sale of indulgences.
• His ideas spread rapidly because of print — thousands of copies circulated in Europe.
• This Lead to the division within the Church and to beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
• Martin Luther Said:- "Printed is the ultimate gift og god and the greatest one".
• Print help to develop intellectual atmosphere and led reformation in society.

3.3 Print and Dissent

• Inn 16th century "Menocchio" A miller in Italy, "Reinterpreted of Bible"
• Roman Catholic enraged.
• Roman Chatolic began inquisition to repress heretical ideas.
• Menocchio was hauled and executed/Killed.
• Imposed severe control over publishers and book sellers.

Q - Who was Menocchio ? Why he had been excuted? Or Why control imposed on publisher and book sellers?

4 - The Reading Mania

Why It’s Called "Reading Mania"

• People were crazy about reading anything they could get.
• Demand for books exploded.

Massive Increase in Readers

• By the 17th and 18th centuries, literacy rates in most parts of Europe rose sharply.
• Schools were set up.
• Pedlars has been employed by publishers.
• Chapmen (Preety pedlars, Carry Chapboos for poor people.
• In France, "Billotheque bleue" - Poor quality book sale in low price.

In 18th Century:- Periodical press developed.

• Begin to publish current affairs, newspaper, jornal information, war, trade, Almanacs (calendars + information). etc.
• Scientist & Philospher ideas access to common place.
• Compied ancient and medieval Scientific text.
• Philospher and scientist (Thomas Paine, Voltaire, Rousseaue widely printed and read.

Q- How did reading became common among people? Or How did access of books easy for the common people

4.1 "Tremble, Therefore, Tyrants of the World"

The Power of Print

• The phrase "Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world" was a bold statement made during the time of the French Revolution (1789).
• Mid 18th century people think that books means spreading progress & enlightment. 
• It expressed the empowerment of the common people as they gained access to knowledge through print.

What Did This Statement Mean?

The phrase refers to the fear that rulers, kings, and tyrants had because of the spread of new revolutionary ideas via printed material.

Louis Sebastian Mercier:- 18th century novelist; "The printing press is the most powerful emgine of prgress and public opinion is the force that will swep depotism away"

Mercier procailmed:- "Tremble, Therefore, Tyrants of the World"

4.2 Print Culture and the French Revolution

there are three types of arguments or ways print culture is discussed in relation to the revolution:

1. Print as a Tool for Spreading Revolutionary Ideas

• Argument: Print played a crucial role in spreading revolutionary ideas such as liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Explanation: Pamphlets, books, newspapers, and broadsheets helped to:
• Inform the common people about new political philosophies.
• Challenge the authority of the monarchy and the Church.
• Spread ideas of democracy and rights of the people.
• Example: The works of Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot spread through print, influencing public opinion and encouraging calls for revolution.

2. Print as a Catalyst for Political Mobilization

• Argument: Print culture helped to mobilize the masses for revolutionary actions.
• Explanation: As ideas spread through print, people became aware of the injustices of the old system and began to take action. Print media was used to:
• Organize protests and demonstrations.
• Spread revolutionary manifestos and calls for action.

3. Print as a Tool for Criticism and Dissent:- Raised the questions about social order.

• Argument: Print allowed for critical voices to emerge against the monarchy and the aristocracy.
• Explanation: Through print, people could express dissent openly without fear of immediate retaliation, leading to the growth of a public sphere where:
• Ideas of revolution and social justice were discussed.
• Political cartoons, pamphlets, and underground presses criticized the excesses of the monarchy.
• This led to the sentiment against the monarchy.

How these arguments help?

• Print culture helped spread revolutionary ideas in France.
• Pamphlets, newspapers, and books spread ideas about freedom and equality.
• Accepeted some idea & rejected order.
• Interpreted things their own way.

5 - The Nineteenth Century

During this period literacy rate bring large number of new readers children, women and workers

5.1 Children, Workers, and Women

Children and Education:- 

• In 19th century Primary Education become compulsary.
• Children became important category of readers.
• In 1857 A children's press set-up
• Grimm brothers in Germany compiling folk tales.
• Published collected story in 1812.

Women and Print Culture

• Women’s access to print materials was limited but gradually increased over time.
• Women become important reader and writer.
• Penny magzine special printed for women like housekeepinga nd manual teaching.
• Novelist women:- Jane Austine, Bronte sisters, George Eliot.

Workers and the Spread of Print

• In 17 century lending libraries existence.
• In 19th century Lending libraries in England became instruments for educating white collar workers, artisans and lower middle class.
• Mid of 19th century workers had some time for self improvement.

5.2 Further Innovations

Technological Innovations in Printing

• Printing technology continued to improve over time, leading to more efficient production of books and other printed materials.
• Metal press introduced in 18th century.
• Richard. M.Hoe - Power driven cylindrical printing 8000 Sheets Per hours.
• Offset press developde, print six colors at time.
• 20th century electrical operated press.
• Shilling Series:- In England, popular work sold in cheap series.
• 20th century innovation:- dust cover or the book jacket.

6.1 Manuscripts Before the Age of Print

What Are Manuscripts?

• Manuscripts refer to handwritten books or documents.
• Manuscripts were written by scribes 
• Before the invention of the printing press, all books were created by handwriting, which was a time-consuming and labor-intensive process.
• It was copied on palm leaves or handmade paper.

6.2 Print Comes to India

Introduction of Printing in India

• The first printing press in India was set up by Portuguese missionaries in Goa in mid 16th century.
• They learn Konkani. by 1674 50 books printed Kankar language.
• 1579 Print Ist Tamil book by Chatolic priest at Cochin.
• 1713 Ist Malayalam book printed.
• 1710 Dutch Protestant printed 32 Tamil text.
• James Augutus Hickey began to edit Brngal Gazette from 1780.
•  Hickey, publish a advertise related to "Sale of Slaves".
• Governer Genral, "Warren Hastings Persected Hickey."
• Weekly Bangal Gazatte brought out by Gangadhar Bhattachary, who was close to Rammohan Roy.

7. Religious Reform and Public Debate

• The 19th century in India saw the emergence of religious reform movements that were deeply connected to public debates on social and political issues.
• Print culture played a significant role in spreading ideas of social and religious reform, challenging traditional practices, and fostering public discussions.
• "Sambad Kamudi" published by Ram Mohan Roy in 1821.
• Hindu orthodoxy commissioned "Samachar Chandrika" oppose his opinions.
• 1822 Two Persian paper published "Jam-i-Jahan" and "Shamshul Akhbar".
• Same year two more new paper published- "Bombay Samachar" and " Gujrati Newspaper".

Fear of Muslim:-

• Ulama began to fear that colonialgovernment would encourages conversion and change Muslim personal law.
• The Deoband seminar, founded in 1867, Published "Fatwa".

Hindu Religious text:-

• Many Religious text published in Vernacular languages
• First printed edition of Ram Charit Manas of Tulsidas appear in Calcutta, during 1810.
• In 1880 Naval Kishore and Shri Venkateshwat published numerous religious text at Mumbai. 

8. New Forms of Publication

• Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing.
• Illustrated Books and Cartoons 
• Cheap Literature and calenders were availabe in Bazars.
• Newspapers, Mazgines and Journalism.
• Raja Ravi Verma produce images for mass circulations.

8.1 Women and Print

Women’s Access to Print

• Print media in the 19th century was a key tool for empowerment and education for women.
• Women had been send to schools.

What was the problem with women to send school?

• Conservative hindus believed that literate women would be widowed and 
• Muslime feared women would be corrupted

Women writer and reformer during 19th Century.

• Early 19th century "Rasundari Debi" learn to read and write - Published "Amar Jiban" In1876.
• Kailashbashini Debu - Wrote about women experience in 1860.
• Tara Bai Sindhe and Pandita Rama Bai - Wrote about women miserable life in 1880.
• Ram Chaddha - Published " Istri Dharm Vichar". Teaches women how to be obedient wives.

8.2 Print and Poor People

The Expansion of Cheap Print Media

• In the 19th century, Cheap literature, newspapers, and pamphlets became more widely available, making it possible for lower-income groups to access printed material.
• Library set-up in city and town.

Indian Reformer:-

Jyotiba Phulle - Wrote "Gulam Giri" 1871. Caste discrimination.

B.R.Ambedkar, E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras and Periyar wrote about Caste system.

Kashibaba - Mill worker wrote "Chhote or Bade ka Sawal. In 1938. about Caste and Class Exploitation.

Sudarshan Chakr - Published "Sacchi Kavitayan" in 1935 & 1955

9. Print and Censorship

• Print culture revolutionized the spread of ideas, but it also brought with it the challenge of censorship.
• Censorship became an important tool used to control the spread of ideas and to maintain social order.

Control in press in India

1820 - Calcutta Supreme court pass regulation - Control press freedom.

1835 - Revise press law, Governer - Genral Bentick - Editor - English and Vernacular news paper

1878 - Vernacula act passed - this Act was based on Irish press law.

1907 - Balganga dhar Tilak wrote in Kesari about Punjab revolutionaries.1

1908 - Imprisonment. 

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Chapter - 1 Nationalism in Europe Important Questions

 1 Mark Questions (Very Short Answer)

• Who was the architect of the unification of Germany?
• What was the significance of the Treaty of Vienna (1815)?
• Name the allegory used to represent France.
• Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?
• What does the term ‘Zollverein’ refer to?
• Who was Johann Gottfried and Grimm Brothers? 
• Who was Frederic Sorrieu and what's the name of his painting? 
• What is a meaning of Utopian vision of a worlds according to Frederic Sorrieu? 
• What is the meaning of torch which hold by The statue? 
• Broken thrown can be seen as? 
• What do you mean by liberalism?
• Allegory of Germany and France called. 
• Sword, oak, and Imperial crown symbolize for? 
• How this picture relate to nationalism? 

3 Mark Questions (Short Answer)

• Explain any three features of the French Revolution that promoted the idea of nationalism in Europe.
• What role did language and culture play in developing nationalist sentiments in Europe?
• Describe the process of unification of Italy.
• Explain the role of Giuseppe Garibaldi in the unification of Italy.
• What were the main provisions of the Treaty of Vienna 1815?
• What do you mean by Romanticism?
• What is civil code and who introduced it? 
• What was the reason of conflict between middle class and aristocrate? 

5 Mark Questions (Long Answer)

• How did the French Revolution lay the foundation for nationalism in Europe? Explain with examples.
• Compare the processes of unification of Germany and Italy.
• Describe the role of Otto von Bismarck in the unification of Germany.
• How did Romanticism help in the rise of nationalism in Europe?
• How unification of Britain different from Germany and Italy? 
• What were the major impacts of the Revolution of 1830 and 1848 in Europe?

Chapter - 3 The Making of a Global World

 Chapter - 3  The Making of a Global World 

1. Pre-modern World

• Gloablisation:- The movement/exchange of goods, capital, services, idea and people from one nation to other nations is called globalisation.

In Ancient time:- Travellers, Traders, Priests and Pilgrims travelled long distances for various purpose,

• Knowledge, Opportunities, Spritual full filment
•  Millennia:-  A millennium is a period of 1,000 years. The plural is millennia.
•  Cowries:- Cowries are small, shiny, seashells that were used as a form of money or currency in many ancient societies.
• Cultural exchange (ideas, religion, technology) also took place along these routes.

1.1 - The Silk Route – Linking the World

What was the Silk Route?

• The Silk Route was an ancient network of trade routes that connected Asia, Europe, and parts of Africa.
• It’s called the "Silk Route" because silk, especially from China, was one of the most valuable goods traded.
• It wasn’t a single road, but a series of land and sea routes.

Goods Traded

• From China: silk, porcelain, paper
• From India: spices, textiles, precious stones
• From the Middle East and Europe: glassware, wine, gold, and more

More Than Just Trade

• The Silk Route also helped exchange:
• Ideas: religions like Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam spread along these routes.
• Technologies: such as paper-making, gunpowder, and printing.
• Cultures: art, language, and food habits were shared between distant regions.

Importance in Global History

• It shows that globalization isn’t a modern concept.
• People, goods, and ideas were moving across continents for centuries.
• It helped create economic and cultural connections long before modern transport and communication.

Question:- Was the silk route only used for trade?

1.2 Food Travels – Spaghetti and Potato

Food as a Global Traveller

• Food items have always moved across regions and countries along with trade, migration, and conquest.
• As people traveled, they brought their eating habits, seeds, and farming techniques with them.

Spaghetti from China?

• Many think of spaghetti as a traditional Italian food.
• But noodles were first made in China, and from there, they spread to Europe, where they were adapted into spaghetti.
• This shows how a Chinese invention became a European staple.

Pasta and Sicily 

• Today, we think of pasta as a classic Italian dish, but it has a global history.
• Pasta was introduced to Sicily (an island in Italy) by Arab traders many centuries ago.

 The Story of the Potato

• The potato came from South America (Peru, Bolivia) and was introduced to Europe by Spanish conquerors in the 16th century.
• It became very important in Europe because:
• It was cheap to grow.
• It fed the poor, especially in Ireland and Eastern Europe.
• Helped increase population because of better nutrition.

But: Over-dependence on potato led to tragedy—like the Irish Potato Famine in the 1840s when crops failed.

Food Item                 Origin             Traveled To                         Impact

Noodles                         China     Europe (as spaghetti)         Became key in Italian cuisine

Potato                 South America Europe, India, etc.     Fed poor, increased population, caused                                                                                                                             famines when failed.

 1.3 Conquest, Disease and Trade

The European conquest of the Americas led to major changes in global trade, population, and economies — mostly with negative effects on indigenous people.

The Discovery of the Americas:- In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the continent of America (while trying to find a sea route to India).

• After this, European powers (like Spain and Portugal) began to conquer and colonize large parts of North and South America.
• America:- In 16th century, America was very rich in term of resources (Different foods, crop, precious metals, silver).
• What people think:- In america there was a city (" El - Dorado" - The City of Gold). 

Mid 16th century (Conquest)

• Portguese and Spanish conquest and colonizes America.
• Along with weapons, the Europeans brought diseases like:- Smallpox,  Measles, Influenza
• The native people had no immunity (due to Isolations) to these foreign diseases.
• As a result, millions died — some historians estimate 90% of the native population perished.
• This made it easier for Europeans to conquer the Americas.

Till 18th Century:- Europe become the centre of world trade.

• India and China was the richest country in the world.
• In 15th Century China restricted overseas contact and retreated into isolated from world trade.
• Due to Isolation America began to rise grdually and become centre of world trade.

Questions:- 

What do you mean by Globalisation?

What is importance of Silk Route in Ancient time?

Why Travellers, Traders, Priest traveled?

What is another name of Pasta and Noodles and which country it origin or travelled to?

What is the meaning of El-Dorado?

How Europe becom the centre of world trade?

How Europe conquest in America?

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Chapter - 2 Nationalism in India

 Chapter - 2 Nationalism in India

The chapter discusses the emergence of nationalism in India and how it became a powerful force in the struggle against British rule.

Focuses on the Non-Cooperation Movement(1920), Civil Disobedience Movement, and other aspects of the Indian independence struggle.

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

Impact of first world war in India?

• World war - I (1914-18) created a new economic and political situation in India.
• High taxes, price rise, forced recruitment, and famines led to widespread resentment.

1.1 The Idea of Satyagraha

What is Satyagraha?

• Gandhi ji came India January 1917
• Satyagraha is a method of non-violent protest developed by Mahatma Gandhi.
• The word means ‘truth-force’ or ‘soul-force’.
• It is based on the idea that if the cause is true and the struggle is just, then no physical force is necessary to fight injustice.

Key Principles of Satyagraha:

• Non-violence (Ahimsa) – Never use physical force, even if the opponent does.
• Truth (Satya) – Be truthful and seek truth through peaceful means.
• Suffering (Tapasya) – Be ready to endure pain without retaliation.
• Faith in the Opponent’s Conscience – Gandhi believed that if you peacefully appeal to the conscience of the oppressor, it will eventually lead them to see their injustice.
• Gandhi’s Belief:- "Satyagraha is not just a political strategy, but a way of life."
• He believed that Satyagraha would unite people from all walks of life in a moral struggle against injustice and create a foundation for Indian nationalism.

Gandhi’s Early Experiments with Satyagraha in India:- Before launching national movements, Gandhi experimented with Satyagraha at local levels:

• 1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) – Bihar :- Struggle of indigo farmers against oppressive European planters.
• 2. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) – Gujarat :- Farmers couldn’t pay taxes due to crop failure; demanded tax relief.
• 3. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) – Gujarat :- Cotton mill workers demanded better wages; Gandhi led a peaceful hunger strike.

1.2 The Rowlatt Act (1919)

What Was the Rowlatt Act?

• Against this  Act of 1919, Gandhi ji launch Satyagraha 
• Passed by the Imperial Legislative Council despite strong opposition by Indian members.
• Introduced by Sir Sidney Rowlatt, hence called the Rowlatt Act.

Main Features of the Act:

• No Trial – Allowed the government to arrest and detain people without trial for up to 2 years.
• No Right to Know Charges – Accused persons didn’t have to be told what crime they were charged with.
• No Lawyer – They could not even hire a lawyer to defend themselves.
• Suppression of Press and Freedom – Curtailed freedom of expression and increased censorship.

Indian Reaction & Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919):

• Indians saw it as a “Black Act” – a violation of civil rights.
• It infuriated people all over the country.
• Mahatma Gandhi called for a nationwide protest against it using Satyagraha.
• Gandhi launched a non-violent movement:
• Hartals (strikes)
• Rallies
• Boycotts
• Peaceful protests
• Hindu-Muslim unity was seen during this movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919):

• Peaceful protestors had gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
• Martial law:- it was imposed by, British General Dyer ordered firing on the unarmed crowd without warning.
• Hundreds were killed and thousands injured.
• This brutal act shocked the nation and broke people’s trust in the British.

Result of the Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh:

• Gandhi decided the British could not be trusted with reforms.
• It was a turning point that fueled mass nationalism.
• Led to the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement later in 1920.
• Gandhi ji call off the movement when seeing voilence spread 

Khilafat Movement (1919-1920): 

• Launched by Indian Muslims to protest against the harsh treatment of the Ottoman Turkey after WWI.
• Khilafat Committee formed in Bombay,March 1919.
• Muhammad & Shaukat Alii discuss with Gandhi ji to united mass action towards unified nation.
• Calcutta Session of Congress (1920):- Convinced other leader to start non-cooperation movement, in support of 'Khilafat' as well as for 'Swaraj'.

1.3 Why Non-Cooperation?

Mahatma Gandhi's Belief: In his book "Hind Swaraj (1909)" Gandhi ji wrote: 

• Gandhi believed that British rule in India was based on the cooperation of Indians.
• If Indians refused to cooperate, the British rule would collapse within a year.
• This idea led to the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement.

How non-cooperation became a movement:-

• Government awardee titles were surrender.
• Boycott civil services, army, police, court, Legislative councils, school & Foreign clothes.
• 1920 Civil disobedience campaign launch

Congress Decision – 1920 Nagpur Session:- Non-Cooperation movement was adopted.

2.Differing Strands within the Movement

• For Gandhi, it meant peaceful protest to gain swaraj.
• But for peasants, tribals, and workers, it also meant:
• Land reform
• End of exploitation
• Economic relief
• This shows how it became a true mass movement – everyone participated, even if for different reasons.

2.1 The Movement in  Towns:

• Students left British schools and colleges.
• Lawyers (like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru) stopped going to British courts.
• Foreign goods were boycotted.
• People started wearing khadi (Indian-made cloth).
• Shops selling foreign goods were shut down.
• Effects of non-cooperation on Economic front:-
• Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops pickted.
• Foreign clothes burnt
• half of import foreign cloth people began to use Indian clothes.

Reason of slow down of movement in cities:- 

• People not able to afford khadi clothes because it was expensive.
• Teachers and Students join schools and colleges.
• Lawyer joined their practices in government court.
• Students, Teachers and Lawyer had no options for their survival.

 2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside

How peasants and tribal people joined the Non-Cooperation Movement in rural areas, especially with their own local issues in mind. Two  Rebillion take place in the countryside.

1. Peasant Movement in Awadh (Uttar Pradesh)

Leader: Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi who had worked in Fiji as an indentured laborer.

Reasons for Protest:

• High rents and taxes.
• Forced labor (begar) demanded by landlords (talukdars).
• No rights over leased land.

Demands:

• Reduction in rent.
• Abolition of begar.
• Right to use land without eviction.

How They Protested:

• Peasants refused to pay rent.
• They attacked landlords' estates.
• Pitched tents and organized panchayats.
• They raised slogans like “No rent, no tax”.

Awadh Kisan Sabha:- In October Nehru ji and Baba Ram Chandra formed organization. 

Connection with Congress:

• Congress leaders initially tried to bring these protests under control.
• Gandhi wanted non-violence, but peasants were more aggressive.
• This shows how local struggles merged with the national movement — though with different goals.

Gandhi ji Declared:- 

• Taxes were not paid.
• Land redistributed among the poor.

2. Tribal Movement in Gudem Hills (Andhra Pradesh):- Leader: Alluri Sitaram Raju (seen as an incarnation of God by the tribals).

Why the Tribals Rebelled:

• The British restricted forest access.
• They banned the tribals from collecting wood or grazing cattle.
• Tribals were forced into begar (forced labor) for road construction.

The Rebellion:

• Raju inspired the tribals to take up arms.
• They used guerrilla warfare to attack British officials.
• Though Raju supported Gandhi’s message of swaraj, he believed violence was necessary.

Outcome:

• The British captured and executed Raju in 1924.
• The rebellion left a mark and showed how tribals connected their local grievances to the freedom struggle.

2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations

This section explains how the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the tea plantations of Assam and how plantation workers interpreted the idea of Swaraj.

Who Were the Plantation Workers?

• Mostly poor tribal and rural workers.
• They were sent far from home to work in tea gardens in Assam under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859.
• This law restricted their movement: they couldn't leave the plantations without permission.

Conditions of Workers:

• Very low wages.
• Harsh working and living conditions.
• No freedom to return to their villages.
• Exploited and isolated from the rest of the country.

 3. Towards Civil Disobedience

Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 after the Non-Cooperation Movement ended.

What Is Civil Disobedience?

• It means disobeying unjust laws peacefully.
• Not just refusal to cooperate like before, but now actively breaking British laws.
• Gandhi planned to start the movement with salt as the symbol of protest.

Who formed Swaraj Party and why it formed?

C.R Dass and Moti lal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party. within in the congress to argue for a return to council pollitics

Government of India Act of 1919:- The Government of India Act 1919 introduced limited self-governance in provinces, but kept real power in British hands.

Which two factors shaped the Indian politics in late 1920?

1 - Worldwide economic depression.

2 - Tory Governmet in Britian constituted Simon commission

Function of Simon commission:- Simon Commission to India to review the working of the Government of India Act 1919 and suggest reforms.

What problems Indian have with Simon Commission?

No Indian was included in the commission , all members were British!

Arrived Simon Commission in India in 1928:- 

• Indians strongly boycotted the commission with slogans like "Simon Go Back".
• Protest led to nationwide strikes and rallies.
• October 1929:- Lord Irwin announced round table conference to discuss about future constitution.
•  Demand for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence)
• After the disappointment with the Simon Commission and British attitude, the Congress lost hope in gaining dominion status.
• In the Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress in 1929, presided by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress declared the goal of Purna Swaraj (complete independence).
• 26 January 1930 was observed as Independence Day all over India.
• This declaration set the stage for the Civil Disobedience Movement.

3.1 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

Why Salt?

• Salt is a basic necessity of life, used by rich and poor alike.
• The British government had a monopoly on salt production and tax.
• Indians were not allowed to make or sell salt.
• Gandhi chose salt as a symbol of resistance – simple, yet powerful and relatable for all

The Salt March (Dandi March) – 12 March to 6 April 1930

• 31 January 1930 Gandhi ji write a letter to Irwin with 11 Demands.
• Gandhi began a 240-km march from Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad) to Dandi (Gujarat).
• He was joined by 78 trusted volunteers.
• The march lasted for 24 days.
• On 6 April 1930, Gandhi broke the Salt Law by making salt from seawater at Dandi.
• This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

 Civil Disobedience Movement: What Happened?

• People across India started:
• Breaking colonial laws, especially the Salt Law.
• Boycotting British goods, especially cloth and liquor.
• Picketing shops selling foreign goods.
• Refusing to pay taxes (like land revenue).
• Resigning from government jobs and schools.
• Villagers stopped paying taxes and broke forest laws.

British Reaction:

• Brutal suppression by the British government.
• April 193A - bdul Gaffar Khan arrested 
• Over 90,000 people were arrested.
• Gandhi was also arrested.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact – 5  March 1931

• After huge pressure, the British agreed to negotiate.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed:
• Gandhi agreed to call off the movement and attend the Second Round Table Conference in London.
• British agreed to release political prisoners (except those involved in violence).

Failure of Round Table Conference

• The conference in London failed – the British refused to grant dominion status or discuss full independence.
• Gandhi returned disappointed and relaunched the movement in 1932.

 3.2 How Participants Saw the Movement:- different social groups joined the Civil Disobedience Movement, but they all had their own reasons, expectations, and ideas of Swaraj (freedom).

1. Rich Peasants (Like in UP and Gujarat) :- Why They Participated:

• They owned land and had to pay high land revenue (taxes) to the British.
• During the Great Depression (1929), crop prices fell, but taxes remained high.
• They joined the movement hoping that revenue would be reduced.

What Happened?

• When the movement was called off after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, they were disappointed because their main demand (reduction in land revenue) was not fulfilled.
• Many refused to join the movement again in 1932.

 2. Poor Peasants:- Why They Participated:

• They were landless or small farmers with huge debts.
• They wanted the movement to bring relief from taxes and loans.

What Happened?

• Congress did not support no-rent campaigns, fearing it would alienate rich peasants.
• Poor peasants felt left out and lost faith in Congress.

3. Businessmen and Industrialists:- Why They Participated:

• FICCI 1927:- Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry.
• Purshotam Das And G.D.Birla supoorted Civil Disobedience movement
• They wanted protection from British imports.
• Wanted to expand Indian industries.
• Supported boycott of foreign goods, gave financial help to Congress.

What Happened?

• Worried by growing labour unrest and longer political instability.
• Lost enthusiasm when the movement was suspended.

Chota Nagpur mines worker Strike:- 1930

Strikes by Railway Workers:- in 1931

Dock Worker:- strike 1932

4. Women:- Why They Participated:

• Inspired by Gandhi, thousands of women came out to:
• Picket liquor shops
• Boycott foreign cloth
• Participate in protest marches
• Many were from urban educated families as well as rural areas.

 3.3 The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Civil Disobedience Movement involved many Indians, not everyone participated equally, and some groups felt left out or even alienated.

1. Dalits or ‘Untouchables’:- What They Wanted:

• Better treatment, social equality, and access to temples, schools, and public places.
• They wanted political representation and reserved seats.

Why They Felt Excluded:

• Congress was hesitant to include their demands (feared alienating upper-caste support).
• Gandhi believed in upliftment of Dalits but called them Harijans (children of God), not in favor of separate electorates for them.

 Clash of Ideas/Role of Ambedkar:

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, leader of Dalits, demanded separate electorates.
• Gandhi opposed this, fearing it would divide the Hindu community.
• Round table confrence:- Demanding separate electroal for "Dalit".

Poona Pact (1932):

• After Gandhi’s fast unto death, the Poona Pact was signed.
• Separate electorates were dropped, but Dalits were given reserved seats in general elections.

2. Muslim Participation:-Why Muslims Were Wary:

• After the Khilafat Movement ended, many Muslims felt disconnected from the Congress.
• Hindu-Muslim unity weakened.
• Some felt that Congress was not protecting their interests.
• There were communal tensions and riots in the late 1920s.

Result:

• Muslim leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah and others began focusing more on separate Muslim identity and rights.
• Many Muslims did not participate in Civil Disobedience.

4. The Sense of Collective Belonging

Nationalism in India grew not just through movements, but also by creating a shared identity among Indians – a feeling of "We are all one nation."

What Is “Collective Belonging”? :- It means when people start feeling united as one group or nation.

Even though Indians came from different castes, religions, regions, etc., they started seeing themselves as part of one Indian identity.

How Was This Feeling Created?:- 

1. Images and Symbols

• The image of Bharat Mata (Mother India) became a symbol of the nation.
• First painted by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, then later popularized by Abanindranath Tagore.
• Bharat Mata was shown as a goddess and symbol (Trishul, Elephant, Tiger) – powerful and divine(Authority).
• This helped people imagine India as a motherland to be loved and protected.

 2. National Songs

• In 1870, Bankim Chandra wrote ‘Vande Mataram’, which became the national song of the freedom movement.
• It was sung during protests, processions, and patriotic gatherings.

3. Folk Tales and Folklore

• Leaders collected folk stories, songs, and legends from rural India.
• These represented the rich culture and unity of Indian society.
• It showed people that India had a glorious past and a common cultural heritage.
• In Bengal:- Rabindra Nath Tagore began to collect ballad, nursery, rhymes, and myths
• In Madras:- Natesa Sastri collection of Tamil folk tales, "The Folklore of Southern India".

4. Use of History

• Nationalists wrote about India’s ancient achievements in science, art, and religion.
• This was done to instill pride in Indians and counter British claims that Indians were backward and needed foreign rule.

5. Indian Flag

• The Indian national flag went through many changes:
• Early version (1906): three colors – green, yellow, red with symbols like lotus and sun.
• Eight Lotus representing:- Eight British Provinces, Crescent Moon:- Representing Hindu & Muslim.
• Later version in 1921 (by Gandhiji): spinning wheel (charkha) in the center, symbolizing self-reliance.
• The flag became a symbol of unity and resistance.

Difference Between Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements

Feature       Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–2            Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34)

Launched by Mahatma Gandhi                                                         Mahatma Gandhi

Main Aim To oppose British rule through non-cooperation To break unjust British laws (civil                                                                                                                                     disobedience)

Reason (Against Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and Khilafat issue)         Against salt tax, colonial rule, and demand                                                                                                                                         for Purna Swaraj (complete independence) 

Main Method (People refused to cooperate: boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, foreign goods) People actively broke                                                                                                                                       laws: salt law, forest laws, refused to pay taxes

Nature of Protest Non-violent non-cooperation                                                                 Peaceful law-breaking (Satyagraha)

Participation (Urban middle class, students, teachers, lawyers) Wider participation: peasants, tribals, women, business class

Government Response Repressive, arrests, crackdown         Brutal suppression, mass arrests, Congress declared illegal

Ended Because Chauri Chaura incident (violence by protesters) Failed Round Table Conference, British refusal to grant                                                                                                                                     demands

Outcome Gave mass support to national movement     United Indians but exposed social divisions; led to Poona Pact

Extra Questions:-

• What British think about Indians?
• What respond of Indian about British thinking?
• How different community people develop a sense of collective belonging?
• Difference Between Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements
• Why Gandhi ji organise salt march?
• Why Gandhi ji Called off Movement?
• Why different communnity or people have differnt standards about movement?
• What was Martial Law?
• What do you mean by idea of satyagarh and who launch it?
• When congress session held in Calcutta, Nagpur and Madrs show in map with year?

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Class 10, History chapter - 1 (The rise of nationalism in Europe) Topic 4, and 5

4 the making of Germany and Italy 

4.1 Unification of Germany

The making of Germany and Italy was a process of unification that took place during the 19th century.

The Making of Germany: Before unification, the region we now know as Germany was made up of over 300 independent states.

Key Figures:

• Otto von Bismarck – Prussian Chancellor and chief minister, who masterminded German unification through his policy of Blood and Iron.
• King Wilhelm I – King of Prussia, later the first German Emperor.
• Middle class people goes to Prussia king but king deny and suppressed them.
• Middle class people goes to Junkers (landlords) of Prussia.
• Chief ministers, Junkers and Millitary fight against French, Austria, and Denmark.

The Role of Prussia:

Otto von Bismarck: The key figure in the unification of Germany was Otto von Bismarck, Prime Minister of Prussia. He used a combination of diplomacy and war to achieve his goal of uniting the German states under Prussian leadership.

• Prussia win and Germany unification process completed
• January 1871 Kaiser William I become the Prussian king.
• Prussia focused on to modernize the currency, banking, legal and judicial system.

4.2 Unification of Italy 

Italy, like Germany, was also divided into seven smaller states and foreign-controlled territories. 

1. Italy north area under :- Austria Habsburg
2. Centre was ruled by :- POP
3. Southern regions under control of :- Bourbon king of Spain
4. Sardinia - Piedmont :- Italian princely house. 

Key Figures:

• Giuseppe Mazzini: A passionate nationalist and revolutionary, Mazzini was a key figure in the early stages of Italian unification. He founded the secret society Young Italy to promote the idea of a united Italian republic.
• Count Camillo di Cavour: Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Cavour played a key diplomatic role in uniting Italy. He worked to secure alliances, particularly with France, to weaken Austria, which controlled parts of northern Italy.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi: A military leader and nationalist, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, which resulted in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south. His actions were crucial in uniting Italy.
• Young Italy secret society formed by Giuseppe Mazzini but,1831 and 1848 revolution failure.
• The Second Italian War of Independence (1859): Cavour allied with France to defeat Austria, which led to the annexation of Lombardy to Sardinia.
• The Expedition of the Thousand (1860): Garibaldi’s forces conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the southern states joined Sardinia.
• Central Italy controled by POP but they afraid and surrendered. 
• The Kingdom of Italy (1861): Italy was officially unified under King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia, though Rome remained outside until 1870.

4.3 The strange case of Britan

The Strange Case of Britain: A Unique Path to Nation-State Formation :- Britain did not experience a single nationalist revolution. Instead, its nation-state formation was driven by parliamentary developments, economic changes, and military conquests.

Major Ethnic Groups in Britain

(i) English (England)

• The largest ethnic group, mainly in England.
• Dominated British politics, language (English), and governance.

(ii) Scottish

• A distinct ethnic group with Gaelic and Anglo-Saxon heritage.
• Scotland maintained a separate legal system, education, and church even after the 1707 union with England.

(iii) Welsh

• Descendants of the ancient Britons.
• The Welsh language and culture have seen a revival in modern times.

(iv) Irish

• Ireland was incorporated into Britain in 1801 but remained culturally and religiously distinct.

Ireland Key Events in British Unification:

Act of Union (1707): England and Scotland united to form Great Britain under a single parliament in London.

The Glorious Revolution (1688) established a system where the monarch ruled with the consent of Parliament, reducing the king's absolute power.

Two Kinds of People in Ireland (1798 & 1801 Act of Union)

1. Catholics (Majority)

• Mostly native Irish population.
• Led the Irish Rebellion of 1798 with support from revolutionary France.

1798 Rebellion (Catholic and United Irishmen Revolt)

• Inspired by the American and French Revolutions.
• Led by Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen (a mixed Catholic and Protestant nationalist group)

1801 Act of Union

• After the failed 1798 rebellion, Britain imposed the Act of Union (1801), merging Ireland with Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Conclusion :- 

• England become a new "British Nation"
• Introduce symbols 
• British Flag (Union Jack)
• National Anthem (God save our noble king)

5 - Visualizing the Nation

During the 19th century, nationalism spread across Europe, and people began to imagine and represent their nations in symbolic ways. Artists, poets, and political leaders created national symbols, personifications, and allegories to inspire unity and patriotism

(i) Germania (Germany)

• Germania was the national personification of Germany.
• She was often depicted as a strong woman with:
• A sword (symbolizing readiness to defend the nation).
• An oak wreath (representing heroism and strength).
• The imperial crown (showing authority and unity).
• The Black-Red-Gold flag (colors of German nationalism).

(ii) Marianne (France)

• Marianne represented the French Republic and the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Marianne became a symbol of the French Revolution and democracy.

5.1 - Nationalism Leads to Imperialism

While nationalism united people within a country, it also encouraged imperialism—the expansion of power over foreign territories.

What is Imperialism?

The policy of extending a country’s political, economic, or military control over other regions.

Case Study: The Balkans 

• The Balkans refers to a region in Southeastern Europe that includes countries like Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. 
• During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Balkans became a center of nationalist movements, imperial rivalries, and conflicts, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918).
• Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Britain wanted to control in the Balkans.

Anti-imperial movements 

Anti-imperial movements played a crucial role in reshaping the modern world. They ended colonial rule, promoted self-determination, and inspired global struggles for equality and justice.

Modern Nationalism in Europe came to be associated with the formation of nation states.

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HISTORY CHAPTER -1 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Class 10th History Notes Chapter -1, The age of revolution : - 1830-1848 (Topic :- 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3)

 3 The age of revolution : - 1830-1848  (Topic :-  3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3)

The period between 1830 and 1848 was marked by widespread revolutionary movements across Europe. These revolutions were driven by liberalism, nationalism, and economic hardship and aimed at overthrowing monarchies, gaining independence, and establishing constitutional governments.

Two Revolution in this period :- 

1. July Revolution
2. Greek Revolution

1. The July Revolution (France, 1830)

• Cause: Bourbon king X tried to suppress freedom of the press and dissolve the elected parliament.
• Event: People revolted and  overthrown.
• Result: Louis Philippe (the "Citizen King") took the throne, establishing a constitutional monarchy.

Impact: Inspired revolutions in Belgium

2. The Belgian Revolution (1830)

• Cause: Belgium was forced into a union with the Netherlands in 1815 (Treaty of Vienna).
• Event: The Belgians revolted and declared independence.
• Result: Belgium became an independent nation in 1831.

Greek Revolution (1821–1832)

The Greek War of Independence (also called the Greek Revolution) was a nationalist uprising against Ottoman rule, leading to Greece’s independence in 1832.

Causes of the Greek Revolution

• Oppression by the Ottoman Empire – Greece had been under Ottoman rule for nearly 400 years, facing heavy taxation and cultural suppression.
• Rise of Nationalism – Inspired by the French Revolution (1789) and the Revolutions of 1830, Greeks sought self-rule.
• Role of the Greek Orthodox Church – Encouraged the fight against Muslim Ottoman rulers.
• European Support – Many Europeans admired Greek culture and history, supporting the revolution.
• West European country, writer and Artisans help Greek to aware to aware citizens of Greek.
• 1832 – The Treaty of Constantinople formally established Greece as an independent monarchy.

3.1 - The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

During the 19th century, the Romantic movement played a crucial role in shaping nationalism. Romantic artists, poets, and thinkers used culture, art, and folklore to promote national identity and unity.

1. What Was Romanticism?

• A cultural and artistic movement that emerged as a reaction against rationalism and industrialization.
• Focused on emotions, nature, history, and national identity.
• Celebrated the common people’s traditions, folklore, and language.

2. How Did Romanticism Promote Nationalism? :- 

A. Emphasizing Folk Culture and History

• Johann Gottfried Herder (Germany) – Believed that a nation’s identity was found in its folk songs, poetry, and stories.
• Collection of folk tales and legends helped preserve cultural identity (e.g., Grimm Brothers’ Fairy Tales in Germany).

B. Promotion of Vernacular Languages

• Poets and writers encouraged people to use their native languages instead of the dominant ruling class’s language. (Polonaise and Mazurka - folk dance of Poland become Nationalist Symbol)
• Example: In Poland, Polish language and literature kept national identity alive under Russian rule.

3. Impact of Romanticism on Nationalism

• Helped preserve and promote national identity in divided or occupied nations (e.g., Poland, Germany, Italy).
• Encouraged resistance against foreign rule through cultural revival.

3.2 - Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt

During the early 19th century, Europe faced severe economic and social crises, leading to widespread unrest, protests, and revolts. The period was marked by hunger, unemployment, and the struggle for political rights.

1. Causes of Hardship and Revolt

A. Economic Crisis

• Industrialization led to unemployment – Traditional workers, like artisans and craftsmen, lost jobs due to mass production in factories.
• Food shortages – Poor harvests in the 1840s led to high food prices and famine.
• Population growth – Europe’s population was increasing, but jobs were scarce, leading to poverty.

B. Social Inequality

• The ruling elite controlled resources – Monarchs, nobles, and aristocrats had political and economic power, while common people suffered.
• No political rights for workers and the poor – Only the wealthy classes could vote in most European countries.

C. The 1848 Revolutions (People's Revolts)

• People demanded constitutional governments, social reforms, and fair wages.
• Workers, peasants, and the middle class joined forces against monarchies.

2. Major Popular Revolts in French city Paris

• Cause: Economic crisis and demand for universal suffrage.
• Event: King Louis Philippe was overthrown.
• Result: The National Assembly proclaimed Second Republic was formed, and introducing voting rights for all men.

3. Impact of Revolts

• Inspired future democratic movements – The demand for universal suffrage and constitutional rule grew.
• Forced rulers to consider reforms – Some governments introduced limited voting rights and better working conditions.

Silesia Revolt :- In 1845, Weaver revolt against contractor because they reduce the payment of weaver.

3.3 - The Revolution of the Liberals

The Revolution of the Liberals refers to the Revolutions of 1848.

2. Causes of the Liberal Revolutions (1848)

A. Political Causes

• Demand for Constitutions – Most European countries still had absolute monarchies with little political freedom.
• Lack of Voting Rights – Only wealthy landowners could vote, while the middle and working classes had no representation.

B. Economic Causes

• Unemployment and Poverty – The industrial revolution created job loss for artisans and economic inequality.
• High Taxes and Food Prices – Poor harvests in 1845–1847 led to famine and starvation.

C. Nationalist Aspirations

• Germany and Italy – Liberals wanted to unite their fragmented states into one nation.
• Poland and Hungary – Wanted independence from foreign rulers like Russia and Austria.

 Germany – Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

• Liberal nationalists met to draft a constitution for a united Germany.
• Failure: The King of Prussia, Frederick William IV, rejected the offer to lead a united Germany.

Feminist Movements in the 19th Century

During the 19th century, women across Europe began demanding equal rights, including the right to vote, education, and equal treatment in society.

• Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
• Hungarians were granted autonomy in 1867.

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Class 10th History Notes Chapter -1 (The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation) Topic - 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

 Class 10th History Notes Chapter -1 (The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation)

2.2 - Liberal nationalism in the 19th century stood for:

• Liberalism derives from the "Latin" word liber, meaning free.
• Individual Freedom – It emphasized personal liberties such as freedom of speech, press, and religion.
• Equality Before Law – It promoted the idea of a constitution that guarantees equal rights for all citizens.
• Democratic Government – It supported a government elected by the people rather than monarchy or dictatorship.
• Economic Freedom – It encouraged free markets and the removal of trade restrictions.
• Unification of Nations – It played a role in unifying fragmented states, such as Italy and Germany.
• End of clerical privileges.
• Suffrage - The right to vote.

Liberal nationalists opposed absolute monarchy and aristocratic privileges, aiming to create modern nation-states based on democratic principles.

The middle class in the 19th century faced several problems, especially in the context of liberal nationalism and political changes. 

Limited Political Power – Even though they supported democracy, many middle-class people were excluded from voting rights due to property-based voting systems.

Economic Challenges – Industrialization created economic instability, unemployment, and harsh working conditions, especially for lower-middle-class workers. Traders had to pay high taxes.

Conflict with Aristocracy – The middle class opposed the privileges of the aristocracy but struggled to gain equal social and political influence.

Division Within the Class – The middle class itself was divided into wealthy business owners and struggling professionals, leading to differing political and economic interests. They did not support woman and poor citizens.

National Unification Struggles – In countries like Germany and Italy, the middle class played a key role in unification but faced resistance from conservative forces.

Worker's Movements – The rise of socialism and worker movements challenged middle-class business owners, who often resisted labor rights and better wages for workers.

There were 39 states each of these possessed its own currency, and weights and measures.  

The Zollverein, or Customs Union

The Zollverein, or Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed in 1834 under Prussian leadership. It aimed to create economic unity by removing trade barriers and establishing a common tariff system.

Features of Zollverein

• Abolition of Internal Tariffs – It eliminated customs duties between member states, allowing free trade.
• Common External Tariffs – A uniform tax system was set for trade with non-member states.
• Prussian Leadership – It strengthened Prussia’s influence over the German Confederation.
• Use of a Common Currency – It helped standardize currency, weights, and measures across member states.

Economic Unification Before Political Unification – Zollverein played a crucial role in the eventual unification of Germany in 1871 under Otto von Bismarck.

2.3 A New Conservatism After 1815

A New Conservatism After 1815

• Napoleon Rule :- 1799-1815
• Defeated By :- Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria (these for countries called Conservative), Battle of Water loo

After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, European powers attempted to restore the old order. The period after 1815 saw the rise of a new form of conservatism, which aimed to 

• preserve monarchies, 
• Church power restored
• Adopted censorship
• aristocratic privileges, and 
• traditional institutions while adapting to some modern changes

Treaty of Vienna (1815)

The Treaty of Vienna (1815) was signed after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte to restore stability and order in Europe. It was the result of the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), led by Prince Duke Metternich of Austria.

Changes come after this treaty

1. Political Changes

• Restoration of Monarchies – The Bourbon monarchy was restored in France under Louis XVIII, and other European monarchies were reinstated.
• Strengthening of Conservative Rule – Austria, Prussia, and Russia took the lead in suppressing liberal and nationalist movements.
• Suppression of Liberalism and Nationalism – Conservative rulers crushed revolutionary activities, leading to future revolts (e.g., Revolutions of 1830 and 1848).

2. Territorial Changes

• France Lost Its Conquests – It was reduced to its pre-1792 borders.
• Austria Expanded – Gained Lombardy and Venetia (Northern Italy).
• Prussia Grew Stronger – Acquired Rhineland, Westphalia, and parts of Saxony.
• Russia Gained Poland – Became dominant in Eastern Europe.
• Creation of the Netherlands – Belgium and the Netherlands were merged into the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

3. Economic and Social Changes

• Rise of Industrialization  
• Growing Middle Class 

2.4 The Revolutionaries

After 1815, conservative powers in Europe tried to suppress liberal and nationalist movements, but revolutionaries continued to work for freedom, democracy, and national unification. These revolutionaries were mostly liberals, nationalists, and radicals who opposed monarchy and aristocratic rule.

Who Were the Revolutionaries?

• Liberals – Wanted constitutional government and individual rights (e.g., freedom of speech, equality before the law).
• Nationalists – Aspired for independent nation-states (e.g., Germans, Italians, and Poles wanted to unite their fragmented regions).
• Radicals – Demanded social reforms, including universal suffrage (right to vote for all men, not just property owners).

Secret Societies and Their Role  :-  

• Giuseppe Mazzini – Italian nationalist Born in Genoa in 1807,  Become a member of the Carbonari
• Young Italy in Marseilles (Founded by Giuseppe Mazzini, 1831) – Aimed at uniting Italy as a democratic republic.
• Young Europe in Berne  (Founded by Giuseppe Mazzini)

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Class 10th History Notes Chapter -1 (The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation)

 The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The French Revolution (1789-1799) played a crucial role in shaping the modern concept of nationalism. It introduced the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which later influenced nationalist movements across Europe.

Changes After the French Revolution

1. End of Monarchy and Establishment of a Republic

• Before the revolution, France was ruled by an absolute monarchy under King Louis XVI.
• In 1792, France was declared a Republic, and King Louis XVI was executed in 1793.

2. Popular Sovereignty and Citizenship

• The revolution promoted the idea that a nation belongs to its people, not to a ruler.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emphasized equal rights and personal freedoms.

3. Introduction of a National Identity

• A new French flag (tricolor) replaced the old royal standard.
• Nationalism was encouraged through common laws, a single currency, and the promotion of the French language.
• Citizens were expected to show loyalty to the nation rather than to a king.
• Internal customs duties and taxes dues were abolished.
• New national anthem composed and oaths taken.
• French language was declared as the national language. 
• The French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

4. Spread of Revolutionary Ideas Across Europe

• The French armies, under Napoleon Bonaparte, spread revolutionary ideas across Europe.
• Countries like Italy, Germany, and Poland were influenced by French nationalism.

5. Napoleonic Reforms and Civil Code (1804)

• Napoleon introduced the Napoleonic Code (1804), which:
• Abolished feudal privileges.
• Established legal equality for all citizens.
• Promoted merit-based government positions.
• Transport and communication system were improved.
• Guild restrictions were removed.

6. Drawbacks of the Napoleonic Code

• Increased taxes :- French citizens had to pay high taxes to support Napoleon's wars.
• Imposed Censorship :- Freedom of speech and press was restricted, as Napoleon imposed strict censorship.
• Lack of political freedom :- People had no political rights, as elections were manipulated, and opposition was suppressed
• Forced conscription into the French armies:- Compulsory military service was introduced, forcing people to join the army.

7. Rise of Nationalist Movements

• Inspired by French nationalism, other countries started fighting for their independence.
• For example, Germany and Italy were later unified based on the idea of nationalism.

Conclusion

The French Revolution laid the foundation for modern nationalism by replacing monarchy with the idea of a nation-state. It emphasized citizenship, equality, and democratic governance, influencing revolutions and nationalist movements across the world. 

2 - The making of Nationalism in Europe

• Unlike France, where nationalism developed due to the French Revolution (1789), Europe was divided into various kingdoms, empires, and multi-ethnic regions.
• The concept of a nation-state (a country where people share a common language, history, and identity) emerged gradually in the 19th century through struggles, revolutions, and unification movements.

Habsburg Empire: - 

The empire was not a nation-state; it had many different ethnic groups:

• Germans (Austrians) – Controlled the government, even though they were a minority.
• Hungarians (Magyars) – Dominated Hungary but wanted independence.
• Slavs (Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Serbs, Croats, Ukrainians, Romanians) – Lived in different parts of the empire.
• Italians – Wanted to unify with the rest of Italy.
• Due to this diversity, nationalism became a major problem, as different groups wanted their own independent nations.

2.1 -  The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class 

In 19th-century Europe, society was divided into two major classes:

• The Aristocracy (Traditional ruling class)
• The New Middle Class (Emerging business and professional class)
• These two groups played a key role in political and economic changes in Europe, especially in the growth of nationalism and democracy.

1. The Aristocracy (Who were the Aristocrats?)

• The aristocracy was the wealthy, land-owning elite who held political and social power.
• They were hereditary nobles, meaning their wealth and titles were passed down through generations.
• They lived in large estates, had huge farmlands, and controlled peasant labor.

Characteristics of the Aristocracy

• Small but powerful: Though they were numerically small, they controlled large amounts of land and wealth.
• Spoke French: In many European countries, French was the language of the aristocracy.
• Interconnected through marriage: Aristocratic families across Europe married among themselves to maintain power.
• Opposed nationalism and democracy: They preferred monarchical rule and feared the rise of nationalism, as it threatened their power.

2. The New Middle Class (Who were in the Middle Class?)

The middle class emerged due to the Industrial Revolution.

It included traders, businessmen, industrialists, bankers, professionals (lawyers, teachers, doctors), and skilled workers.

Characteristics of the Middle Class

• Supported Nationalism and Liberalism: They demanded democracy, free trade, and equality before law.
• Grew with Industrialization: As industries and trade expanded, this class became economically strong.
• Wanted a Nation-State: Unlike the aristocracy, they wanted a country based on common identity, language, and government.

3. Conflict Between Aristocracy and Middle Class

• Aspect -                          Aristocracy                                                  Middle Class
• Wealth Source                Land ownership                                              Trade, industry, business
• Political Beliefs      Supported monarchy                                        Favored democracy
• Language                 Spoke French                                            Spoke local/national languages
• Economic System            Favored feudalism                       Wanted free markets & capitalism

Aristocrats resisted change, while the middle class pushed for political reforms.

The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were driven by middle-class demands for constitutional government.

4. Impact of the Middle Class on Nationalism

• The middle class played a key role in the unification of Italy and Germany.
• They spread ideas of democracy, equality, and economic progress.
• The rise of the middle class weakened the power of the aristocracy, leading to modern nation-states.

Conclusion

The aristocracy controlled power but gradually declined due to industrialization and nationalism. The middle class led movements for democracy, economic reforms, and national unity, shaping modern Europe.

Click here to download complete chapter notes : -The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

🔹 Important Exam Points:

• Who were the aristocrats, and what were their characteristics?
• What was the new middle class, and how did they emerge?
• How did the middle class challenge aristocratic power?
• What was the role of the middle class in nationalism?

📌 The decline of aristocracy and the rise of the middle class played a crucial role in shaping modern European societies.