Chapter - 3 Empires and Kingdoms:- 6th to 10th Centuries

 Chapter - 3 

Empires and Kingdoms:- 6th to 10th Centuries

1. Time Period:- This chapter covers the period from 600 CE to 1200 CE. It is the time after the decline of the Gupta Empire. Historians call this period:

• Post-classical
• Late classical
• Early medieval

2. What happened after the Gupta Empire?

• The Gupta Empire lost its power around 600 CE.
• India was no longer ruled by one big empire.
• Instead, many small and regional kingdoms emerged.

3. Important Kingdoms of this Period:-(a) Kannauj (North India)

• Located near the Ganga River.
• Became an important political and cultural centre.
• Kings supported poets and scholars.

(b) Chalukya dynasty (Deccan Region):-Known for:

• Beautiful temples
• Prosperous cities
• Important rulers controlled large parts of central India.

(c) Pallava dynasty (South India)

• Famous for rock-cut architecture.
• Built temples at Mahabalipuram (Māmallapuram).
• Created entire temples by carving rocks.

(d) Pala dynasty (Bengal Region)

• Supported education and learning.
• Established great universities like:
• Vikramashila University

4. Feature of This Period:- No large empire like the Guptas.

• Many regional kingdoms
• Each had its own culture and power

Growth of:- Art, Architecture, Education, Trade

The ‘Great King of Kings’ – Harṣhavardhana

• Harshavardhana became king in 606 CE.
• He belonged to the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
• The earlier capital was Thanesar.
• Later, he ruled from Kannauj.

Expansion of Empire:-Harsha expanded his empire over:

• Large parts of northern India
• Parts of eastern India
• Though the exact boundaries are not clearly known.

Harsha as a Scholar and Patron:- Harsha was:

• A poet
• A dramatist
• He is believed to have written three Sanskrit plays.

His works show:

• Court life
• Love stories
• Moral values
• He also supported scholars like

Banabhatta:- 

• Wrote Kadambari (one of the earliest novels)
• Wrote Harshacharita

Religion and Beliefs:- Harsha was:

• A devotee of Shiva
• Also influenced by Buddhism
• He respected all religions and beliefs.

Xuanzang’s Visit:- Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited India (630–644 CE). His purpose:

• Visit Buddhist sites
• Learn from Indian teachers
• He brought back 600+ Buddhist manuscripts to China.
• Harsha welcomed Xuanzang to his court.
• His travel account is an important historical source.

The Tripartite Struggle

What happened after Harsha:- After the death of Harshavardhana (around 647 CE):

• His empire broke up.
• No strong ruler replaced him.
• Many regional kingdoms began to fight for power.

What is the Tripartite Struggle:- The Tripartite Struggle was a three-sided conflict. It was fought between:

• Pala dynasty
• Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
• Rashtrakuta dynasty
• All three wanted to control Kannauj.

Why was Kannauj important:- Located in the fertile Ganga valley. Important for:

• Trade routes
• Agriculture
• Political power
• Controlling Kannauj meant control over North India.

The Three Kingdoms

(a) Rise of the Pāla Dynasty

• After the death of Harshavardhana, Bengal faced disorder.
• In 750 CE, the people chose Gopala as their king.
• He founded the Pala dynasty.
• The Pālas soon ruled over eastern India.

Expansion under Dharmapala

• Gopala’s son Dharmapala expanded the empire.
• The empire spread over:
• Eastern India
• Parts of northern India

Patronage of Buddhism and Education

• Dharmapala was a great supporter of Mahayana Buddhism.
• He established famous monasteries:
• Vikramashila University
• Somapura Mahavihara
• The Pālas also supported:
• Nalanda University
• These monasteries were like universities, attracting students from India and abroad.

 Economic Prosperity

• The Pāla Empire was economically strong because of:
• Internal trade
• Maritime (sea) trade
• Trade routes connected India to Southeast Asia.

Decline and Legacy

• The Pāla Empire later declined.
• However, it left a strong legacy of:
• Good governance
• Education and learning
• Promotion of Buddhism

(b) Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty:- Origin of the Dynasty

• The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was founded in the mid-8th century CE.
• Founder: Nagabhata I.
• Originated from western India (region between Gujarat and Rajasthan).

Capitals:- Early capital: Bhinmal, - Later capital shifted to Ujjain

Military Strength:- The Pratīhāras became famous for:

• Resisting Arab invasions in northwest India.
• They played an important role in protecting Indian territories.

Expansion under King Bhoja

• The most famous ruler was Mihira Bhoja.
• He was a devotee of Vishnu.
• His empire extended from:- Punjab (west), Saurashtra/Kathiawar (west), To Kannauj (east), He controlled most of northern India.

He was also known as:- Mihira (related to the Sun), Adi Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu)

Decline of the Dynasty:- In the 10th century:

• The Rashtrakuta dynasty attacked and destroyed Kannauj.
• This weakened the Pratīhāras.
• Finally, in the early 11th century, they were defeated by the Ghaznavid dynasty.

(c) Rashtrakuta Dynasty:-Rise of the Dynasty

• The Rashtrakuta dynasty rose to power in the mid-8th century CE.
• Founder: Dantidurga.
• He defeated the Chalukya dynasty to become independent.

Capital and Region:- Their capital was Manyakheta (modern Malkheda).

Their empire spread across:- Much of Deccan India, & Parts of northern India

Military Achievements:- Rashtrakuta rulers:

• Conducted successful campaigns in north India
• Briefly captured Kannauj
• They were one of the most powerful dynasties of their time.

Art and Architecture:- King Krishna I built:- The famous Kailasa Temple. It is:

• The largest rock-cut temple in India
• Carved from a single rock at Ellora

Religion and Culture:- The Rashtrakutas supported: & promoted.

• Hinduism
• Buddhism
• Jainism
• Literature in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada
• Learning and education

Important Ruler

• Amoghavarsha I (9th century):
• Took the title Nripatunga
• Known for his interest in literature and culture

Rise of Power in Kashmir

• In the mid-8th century, a powerful kingdom developed in Kashmir.
• Information about its rulers comes from:
• Inscriptions
• Coins
• The book Rajatarangini
• Written by Kalhana, it means “River of Kings”.

Important Rulers:- (a) Lalitaditya Muktapida

• Belonged to the Karkota dynasty.
• Known as a strong and capable ruler.

(b) Queen Didda

• Ruled in the late 10th century.
• Strengthened her power by:- Strategic alliances, & Eliminating rivals (as mentioned by Kalhana)
• Built towns, Constructed and restored temples

Political Condition:- After Lalitaditya:

• Kashmir faced internal conflicts.
• Many rulers gained power through force.

Cultural and Intellectual Importance:- Kashmir was a major centre of:

• Sanskrit learning
• Philosophy
• Arts
• A famous philosophy:-Kashmir Shaivism
• Important scholar:- Abhinavagupta
• Wrote on philosophy, poetry, and arts
• Influenced Indian culture greatly

Role in Buddhism and Trade:- Kashmir acted as a bridge between:

• India
• Tibet
• Central Asia
• It helped in:- Spread of Buddhist ideas, Exchange of knowledge and culture

Art and Craft:- Kashmiri artisans were famous for:

• Sculpture
• Painting manuscripts
• Their work was valued across India and beyond.

Moral Message by Kalhana:- Kalhana emphasized:

• Good rulers bring prosperity
• Cruel rulers face downfall

The Deccan and Beyond – The Chālukyas

Rise of the Chālukyas

• The Chalukya dynasty was founded in the mid-6th century CE.
• Founder: Pulakeśhin I.
• They ruled over the Deccan Plateau.

Pulakeśhin II – The Greatest Ruler

• Most famous ruler: Pulakeśhin II.
• Stopped the expansion of Harshavardhana towards the south.
• Expanded the Chalukya empire.
• His rule made the Chalukyas very powerful in south India.

Capital and Important Centres, Known for:

• Capital: Badami (ancient Vātāpi)
• Famous for rock-cut cave temples.
• Another important centre:
• Aihole (ancient Āryapura/Ayyavole)
• Over 100 temples (Hindu, Buddhist, Jain)

Inscriptions and Sources:- Court poet Ravikirti:

• Wrote an inscription praising Pulakeśhin II.
• Described his victories in a poetical style.
• However, some details may be exaggerated.
• Chinese traveller Xuanzang:
• Visited the Chalukya kingdom.
• Praised Pulakeśhin II’s rule and administration.

Conflict and Decline:- Pulakeśhin II was later defeated by the Pallava dynasty.

By the mid-8th century:- The Rashtrakuta dynasty replaced the Chalukyas in the Deccan.

Later Developments:- (a) Western Chalukyas

• Revival in the 10th century.
• Capital: Basavakalyan (Kalyani).

(b) Eastern Chalukyas:- Ruled from Vengi.

Features:- Fought with Rashtrakutas, Sometimes formed alliances

Promoted:- Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Telugu and Kannada literature

The Pallavas

• The Pallava dynasty was an important South Indian dynasty.
• Their capital was Kanchipuram (Kānchī).
• They reached their peak in the 7th century CE.

Important Rulers:- (a) Mahendravarman I - A powerful ruler who strengthened the Pallava kingdom.

(b) Narasimhavarman I - Son of Mahendravarman I., - Also called Mamalla (meaning “great warrior”).

Achievements:

• Defeated Pulakeśhin II.
• Captured Badami (Chalukya capital).
• Later maintained the Tungabhadra River as a boundary.
• Sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to help a prince regain his throne.

Trade and Economy:- Kanchipuram was:

• A cultural centre
• An economic hub
• Trade items included:- Spices, Textiles (especially silk), Ivory, Luxury goods
• Trade connections with:- Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia
• Important port:- Mahabalipuram
• Foreign coins (Chinese, Persian, Roman) found here

Religion and Culture:- According to Xuanzang:

• Around 100 Buddhist monasteries (may be exaggerated)
• About 80 Hindu temples
• Presence of Jains
• Honesty and truth
• Education and learning

The Pallavas ruled over much of northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh until the late 9th century, when they were finally overthrown by the Chola king Aditya I.

Further South (Pāṇḍyas, Cheras, and Cholas)

• The Pandya dynasty, Chola dynasty, and Chera dynasty were ancient kingdoms.
• They were mentioned in the time of Ashoka and in Sangam literature.
• After some time, they declined but later re-emerged and became powerful again.

The Pāṇḍyas:- Rose to power by the 6th century CE.

• Controlled:- Southern Tamil Nadu, - Parts of Sri Lanka (for some time)
• Capital:- Madurai (a cultural centre)
• Features:- Developed maritime trade with Southeast Asia
• Important port:- Korkai
• Built temples and supported poets
• Translated the Mahabharata into Tamil (now lost)
• Later:- Defeated by the Cholas in the 10th century
• Re-emerged later

The Cheras

• Also known as Chera Perumals.
• Ruled along the Kerala coast.
• Maintained independence despite powerful neighbours.

The Cholas (Re-emergence):- Re-established in the 9th century CE by:- Vijayalaya

• Capital:- Thanjavur, - Expansion under Aditya I
• Son of Vijayalaya:- Aditya I
• Defeated the Pallava dynasty
• Expanded control over:- Tamil Nadu, - Parts of Andhra Pradesh

Achievements of the Cholas

• Built one of the largest empires in South India.
• Known for:- Efficient administration, Powerful navy, Grand temples
• Promoted:- Art (especially sculpture and architecture), Literature in Tamil and Sanskrit

Agriculture and Economy:- The fertile Kaveri River delta:

• Supported agriculture
• Used advanced irrigation systems
• This ensured prosperity of the empire.

Other Developments: Polity and Administration

Political Changes:- After the decline of big empires like Harshavardhana:

• India saw the rise of many small kingdoms.
• Power became decentralised (spread out).

Role of Sāmantas (Feudal Lords):- Big kings like the:

• Chalukya dynasty
• Rashtrakuta dynasty
• Ruled their main areas directly but:
• Controlled other regions through sāmantas (subordinate rulers).

Functions of Sāmantas

• Collected taxes
• Maintained law and order
• Supplied soldiers during wars

Important Point

• Their loyalty was not always strong.
• Sometimes, they became powerful and:
• Rebelled against kings
• Example: Rashtrakutas were once sāmantas of Chalukyas but later overthrew them.

Administrative System:- The kingdom was divided into different levels:

Level                                                         Name

Province                                                     Bhukti / Rashtra

District                                                     Mandala

Village                                                     Basic unit

Village Administration

• Villages were the smallest units.
• Managed by:- Headmen, Accountants, Local committees
• Villages were mostly self-governed.

Local Self-Government in South India

• By the 9th–10th century, strong local assemblies developed.
• Example:
• Uttaramerur (Chola inscriptions)
• These inscriptions describe:- Selection of members to the village sabha, Rules for administration

Importance:- Shows early form of democratic traditions in India.

These traditions go back to:- Ancient janapadas (about 1500 years earlier)

Trade, Economy and Urbanisation

• Land Grant System:- The system of giving land (started during the Gupta period) became more common.
• Land was granted by:- Kings, Chiefs, Royal family members, Sāmantas
• Land was given to:- Individuals, Religious institutions
• This created a new class of landowners.

Impact on Agriculture

• Many landowners did not cultivate land themselves.
• Peasants often worked under them and were sometimes exploited.

Positive developments:

• More land brought under cultivation
• Increase in crop variety
• Growth in agriculture

Irrigation and Farming:- Many irrigation works were built:

• Wells
• Tanks
• Ponds
• Example:- Pallava dynasty built tanks in Tamil Nadu.
• Better irrigation led to:- Higher agricultural production, Growth of cash crops

Trade and Commerce:- Trade increased at both:

• Local level (small traders)
• Long-distance level (merchant ships)
• Important trade routes:- West coast → Iran, Iraq, East Africa, East coast → Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China
• India became a centre of international trade.:- Presence of:- Christian, Muslim, Jewish traders

Urbanisation (Growth of Cities):- Society remained mostly rural, but cities also developed. In North India:-

Some cities declined:- Kaushambi, Shravasti

Some cities flourished:- Thanesar, Kannauj, Varanasi

In South India:- Cities grew as:- 

• Trade centres
• Religious centres

Temples became centres of:- Economy, Trade, Social Life

Complex Society:- Society became more complex., Many new jātis (castes) developed.

Basis of new jātis:- Occupation, Region

Social Structure:- People usually:- Married within their own jati

Some groups were included in society:- Tribes, Migrants

Sources of Information:- Information about society comes from:

• Texts
• Inscriptions
• But there are still many gaps in knowledge.

Cultural Life:- Religious Harmony and Interaction

Rulers supported different religions:- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism

These religions Shared ideas like:- Dharma, Karma.

Sacred places

Art styles

Mostly lived peacefully, though sometimes there were rivalries.

Rise of Tantric Traditions:- Around the 6th century, Tantric traditions developed. Focus on:

• Rituals
• Meditation
• Mantras
• Worship of Shakti (powerful goddess)

Position of Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism:

• Flourished in eastern India under the Pala dynasty
• Famous universities attracted students from Asia
• Declined in other parts due to rise of Hindu temple traditions

Jainism:- Popular in:

• Western India
• Karnataka
• Supported by rulers and merchants
• Famous example:- Gommateshwara statue (Bahubali statue)

Growth of Hindu Traditions:- Important texts:- Puranas

They:- Connected local traditions with larger beliefs

Promoted worship of:- Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Goddesses (Devis)

Focus shifted to:- Bhakti (devotion), Temple worship, Pilgrimage

The Bhakti Movement:- From the 6th century onward, Bhakti spread widely.

It emphasized:

• Personal devotion to God
• Equality (open to all people)
• Important Bhakti Saints

(a) Alvars (Devotees of Vishnu)

• Saints from South India
• Example:- Andal

(b) Nayanars (Devotees of Shiva):- 63 saints devoted to Shiva

Features of Bhakti Movement

• Saints came from different social backgrounds
• Used regional languages (like Tamil)
• Taught:- Direct connection with God, Equality beyond caste and gender

Impact on Society

• Religion
• Literature
• Culture
• Reduced social barriers
• Influence is still seen in India today.

A Galaxy of Mathematicians and Astronomers

Scientific Developments:- This period saw great progress in:

• Mathematics
• Astronomy
• These achievements made India famous in the ancient world.

Brahmagupta – The Great Mathematician

• Brahmagupta (born in 598 CE at Bhinmal)
• Main Contributions
• Wrote Brahmasphutasiddhanta

Introduced rules for:

• Zero
• Negative numbers
• Fractions
• Developed methods to solve equations
• Considered a founder of algebra

Impact:- His work was translated into:

• Persian
• Latin
• Influenced:- Arab scholars, European mathematics

Other Important Scholars

(a) Bhaskara I:- He Worked on:- Trigonometry, Wrote a commentary on Aryabhatiya

(b) Virahanka:- Virahanka, First to describe the Fibonacci sequence

(c) Mahavira (Mathematician):- Mahavira, Lived in the court of:- Amoghavarsha I

Wrote:- The first independent book on mathematics (separate from astronomy)

Astronomy:- Many scholars worked on:

• Predicting planet positions
• Calculating solar and lunar eclipses
• Helped in making:
• Accurate calendars

Knowledge Tradition:- This period continued the work of earlier scholars like:

• Aryabhata
• Varahamihira
• It created a continuous tradition of knowledge over centuries.

Role of Kings:- Rulers supported scholars through:

• Patronage
• Funding
• This helped in the growth of:- Science, Education

Foreign Invasions:-India faced many foreign invasions in history.

• Earlier invasions included:- Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas
• In this period, two important invasions were:
• The Hunas
• The Arabs

The Hunas’ Challenge:- The Huns came from Central Asia. They were:

• Skilled horse riders
• Expert archers
• Known for fast attacks
• Impact on India

The Hunas:- Weakened the Gupta Empire

In the early 6th century:- Two Hun rulers invaded deep into the Ganga plains., Defeat of the Hunas

They were defeated by:- Kings of the Aulikara dynasty, 

Capital:- Mandsaur

After this:

• Hun power in India ended.
• Assimilation into Indian Society

By the 7th century:- Hunas became part of Indian society.

• Worked as soldiers
• Served in administration

Adopted:- Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, Indian culture and religion

Arrival of the Arabs:- After the death of Prophet Muhammad (632 CE):

• Islam spread rapidly.
• Early Arab Attacks

In 637 CE, Arabs attacked ports on India’s west coast:- Thane, Bharuch, Debal

Invasion of Sindh

• Later, Muhammad bin Qasim invaded India.
• He was sent by the governor of Iraq.

NCERT QUESTIONS/ANSWER

Question:-1. If you lived in Kannauj during the struggle between the Pālas, the Pratīhāras and the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas, how would it change your daily life and your estimate of the rulers? Write a letter on this to your friend living in Kanchipuram.

Answer:- Dear Friend,

I hope you are well in Kanchipuram. I am writing to tell you about the difficult times we are facing here in Kannauj.

As you may have heard, our city has become the centre of conflict between the Pala dynasty, Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, and Rashtrakuta dynasty. Because of this struggle, our daily life has changed a lot.

There is a constant fear of attacks. Armies often pass through the city, and sometimes battles take place nearby. Farmers are afraid to work in their fields, and traders find it difficult to carry goods safely. Markets are not as lively as before, and prices of goods have increased. Many people are leaving their homes to find safer places.

Taxes have also increased, as each ruler tries to collect more wealth to support their army. This has made life harder for common people like us. We do not know which ruler will control Kannauj next, so there is a feeling of uncertainty everywhere.

Because of these conditions, my opinion of rulers has changed. Earlier, I thought kings only brought prosperity and protection. But now, it seems that their desire for power often causes suffering to ordinary people. Still, I hope that one strong and just ruler will bring peace and stability to our city.

I hope things are more peaceful in your region under the Pallava dynasty. Please write back and tell me about life there.

Yours lovingly,

Your friend

Question:- 2. Emperors and kings during this period controlled only core regions and governed other regions through subordinate vassals. What would be the advantages and the challenges of such a system?

Answer:-  kings ruled core areas directly and controlled other regions through sāmantas (vassals).

Advantages:

• Easy administration of large territories
• Local rulers understood regional needs better
• Provided military support to the king

Challenges:

• Vassals were often not loyal and could rebel
• Led to political instability
• People could be exploited by local rulers

Question:- 3. In what ways were the invasions of the Hūṇas and the Arabs different in their aims, methods, and impact on the Indian subcontinent? Prepare a write-up, discuss and present it in

the class.

Answer:- The invasions of the Hunas and the Arabs differed in their aims, methods, and impact.

The Hunas invaded mainly for plunder and expansion, using fast and destructive raids. They weakened the Gupta Empire but were later defeated and assimilated into Indian society.

In contrast, the Arabs invaded with political and religious aims, under leaders like Muhammad bin Qasim. They used organized military campaigns and successfully established control over Sindh, bringing new cultural and religious influences.

Thus, the Hunas were absorbed into India, while the Arabs created lasting external influence

Question:- 4. Imagine you are a common citizen watching the Prayāga assembly. How would you react to Harṣha giving away most of his wealth?

Answer:- As a common citizen watching the Prayāga assembly, I would feel amazed and inspired by the generosity of Harshavardhana. Giving away most of his wealth shows that he cared deeply for his people and valued charity over riches.

At the same time, I might also feel a little worried about whether the kingdom would remain strong without enough resources.

Question:- 6.  You will notice that our maps show only ancient names for the kingdoms’ capitals and main cities. Using a pencil, mark the modern names next to their original names. Refer the current map of India and try to locate those cities on it.

Answer:- Ancient Names and Their Modern Names (Map Work)

Kannauj

Ancient name: Kanyakubja

Modern name: Kannauj

Kanchipuram

Ancient name: Kanchi / Kanchipura

Modern name: Kanchipuram

Uttaramerur

Ancient name: Uttaramerur / Uthiramerur

Modern name: Uttaramerur

Bhinmal

Ancient name: Bhillamala

Modern name: Bhinmal

Shravanabelagola

Ancient name: Same (ancient Jain centre)

Modern name: Shravanabelagola

Thanjavur

Ancient name: Tanjavur / Tanjore

Modern name: Thanjavur

Question:-7. Match the ruler or the dynasty with the city.

(a) Rāṣhṭrakūṭas                         (i) Kānchī

(b) Gurjara-Pratīhāras                 (ii) Tanjāvūr

(c) Cholas                                 (iii) Mānyakheṭa

(d) Harṣhavardhana                 (iv) Ujjayinī

(e) Pallavas                             (v) Kānyakubja

Answer:- (a)–(iii), (b)–(iv), (c)–(ii), (d)–(v), (e)–(i)