Chapter - 7
The Vedic Age
1. Time Period of the Vedic Age:- The Vedic Age is divided into two phases:
(a) Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period)
- Time: 1500 BCE – 1000 BCE
- Based mainly on the Rigveda
(b) Later Vedic Period
- Time: 1000 BCE – 600 BCE
- Based on other Vedas like:- Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda, 2. Different Theories about Aryans
Historians have given different theories about the origin of the Aryans:
(1) Aryan Migration Theory (Most Accepted)
- Aryans came from Central Asia
- They entered India through the north-west passes
- They settled in the Punjab region
(2) Indigenous Theory
- Aryans were original inhabitants of India
- They did not come from outside
(3) Arctic Theory
- Given by Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Aryans originally lived in the Arctic region (North Pole)
Among these, the Migration Theory is most widely accepted by historians.
3. Who were the Indo-Aryans?
- Indo-Aryans were a group of people who:
- Spoke Indo-European languages
- Composed the Vedas
They were:
- Pastoral people (cattle rearing)
- Also practiced agriculture
- They called themselves “Arya”, meaning:
- Noble or respectable people
4. Where did they first settle?
- Indo-Aryans first settled in the region called Sapta Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers)
- Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Chenab, Jhelum, Saraswati
- This area was named " Brahmavarta" mean- The land of gods.
- This region lies in:- Present-day Punjab (India and Pakistan)
5. What is Aryavarta?
- “Land of the Aryans”
- Location:- During the Later Vedic Period, Aryans moved eastward
- Aryavarta included:- Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Northern India
- Importance:- It became the main center of Vedic civilization, Agriculture and settlements expanded here
- Dasyus:- Original inhabitants of the region.
Brahmavarta (Early Vedic Region)
- Brahmavarta means “sacred land of the Vedas”
- Vedas means Knowledge. Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, & Atharva Veda
- Vedas give us a lot of information about religious beliefs and practices of the Aryan
- Rigveda:- It was composed in 1500 BCE.
- It contains hymns composed in praise of gods
- It was the earliest region where Aryans settled
Archaeological Sources:- These sources support literary evidence:
- Tools and weapons
- Made of copper and bronze
- Pottery:- Painted Grey Ware (PGW). It was found at Hastiapura, and at Atranjikhera.
Political Organization:- Early Vedic political system was simple and tribal: The Aryans were divided into many tribes
(a) Family (Kula)
- Basic unit
- Head: eldest male
(b) Village (Grama)
- Several families formed a village
- Head: Gramani
(c) Tribe (Jana):- Group of villages
(d) King (Rajan)
- Tribal chief
- Duties:- Protect people, Lead in wars, Not absolute ruler
(e) Assemblies:-
- Sabha:- Council of elders
- Samiti:- General assembly of people
- These helped in decision-making
Vidatha:- It was an important Vedic institution.
Social Life
(a) Family
- Each family was known as a " KUL"
- Joint family system
- Eledst male member was the head
- Head of the family called Grihapati/Gahapati
(b) Position of Women
- Women had respect
- Could:- Attend assemblies, Get education
- Sati & puradh system did not exist.
- "Swayamvara":- Girls had freedom to choose their husband
- Examples of learned women:- Gargi, Maitreyi
Social Division:- The four Varanas
- Brahmins:- The teachers were called Brahmins,who also condict religious ceremonies.
- Kshatriyas:- were rulers, administrators and warriors
- Vaishyas:- Farmer and merchants
- Shudras:- Served all the three classes
Varna System (Social Structure)
- Early Vedic Period:
- Varna system was flexible.
- No strict restrictions on occupation.
- People could choose professions freely.
Later Vedic Period:
- Varna system became rigid and hereditary.
- Occupations were fixed by birth.
- Society became more discriminatory.
Social Divisions
Early Vedic:
- Society mainly divided based on occupation, not birth.
- Less inequality.
Later Vedic:
- Clear division into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
- Shudras appeared later and had a lower position.
- Social inequality increased.
Economic Life
Early Vedic:
- Pastoral economy (cattle rearing was important).
- No regular system of tax collection.
Later Vedic:
- Shift to agriculture-based economy.
- Kings started collecting taxes and tributes.
Political System
Early Vedic:
- Tribal chiefs had limited power.
- Assemblies like Sabha and Samiti were important.
Later Vedic:
- Kings became more powerful.
- Priests and rulers gained wealth and authority.
Social Equality
Early Vedic:- More equality and freedom in society.
Later Vedic:- Inequality increased due to power and wealth concentration.
Cultural Reference (Rig Veda)
- Early texts like the Rig Veda do not clearly mention the varna system.
- The Purusha Sukta (10th Mandala)—which mentions varna—is considered a later addition.
Religion in the Early Vedic Period
Worship of Nature:
- People were impressed by the forces of nature like sun, rain, wind, fire.
- Natural elements were treated as gods.
Important Gods:
- Indra – god of rain and thunder
- Agni – god of fire
- Varuna – god of water and moral order
- Surya – sun god
- Vayu - God of wind
- Usha - Goddess of Dawn
- Prithivi - Mother Goddess
Hymns and Prayers:
- People composed and sang hymns (mantras) in praise of gods.
- These hymns are found in the Rig Veda.
Worship Practices:
- Worship was simple.
- People performed yajnas (sacrifices) to please gods.
- No temples or idols were used.
Purpose of Worship:- To seek rain, food, protection, and prosperity.
Food, Dress,& Amusements:-
Food
- Main food included barley and wheat.
- People ate milk, curd, butter, and ghee (dairy was important).
- Fruits and vegetables were also consumed.
- Meat was eaten on special occasions.
- Drink called Soma was important in rituals.
2. Dress
- Clothes were mostly made of cotton and wool.
- Men and women wore simple garments:
- Lower garment (like dhoti)
- Upper cloth (like shawl)
- Ornaments like necklaces, bangles, and earrings were common.
- People kept long hair and used oils and combs.
3. Amusements (Entertainment):- People enjoyed:
- Music and singing of hymns
- Dancing
- Chariot racing
- Hunting
- Gambling (dice games)
- Social gatherings and festivals were common.
Economic Life
- Economy was mainly pastoral (cattle-based).
- Cattle were the main measure of wealth.
- People also practiced agriculture (barley, wheat).
Occupations included:
- Farmers
- Shepherds
- Craftsmen (carpenters, blacksmiths)
- Barter system was used (no coins).
- No regular tax system in early period.
- Gopati:- A person owning many cows
ARYAVARTA Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)
- Aryavarta (Later Vedic Period)
- The region where Aryans settled later was called Aryavarta.
- It covered areas of northern India, especially the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
- Expansion moved from earlier regions (like Punjab) towards the east.
Areas and Kingdoms:- Important regions and kingdoms included:
- Kuru:- Modern Haryana, Delhi and wwestern part of U.P
- Kosala:- Awadh and U.P
- Kashi:- Benaras
- Magadha:- Patna and GAya
- These were mainly located in the fertile Gangetic plains.
- Agriculture growth helped kingdoms become powerful and stable.
Political Organization
- Shift from tribal system → territorial kingdoms.
- Formation of large states called Janapadas.
- Some powerful kingdoms became Mahajanapadas later.
- Assemblies like Sabha and Samiti lost importance.
- Administration became more organized and centralized.
Position of the King
- King became more powerful and authoritative.
- Kingship became mostly hereditary.
- Considered protector of people and धर्म (dharma).
Performed rituals like:
- Rajasuya (to show power)
- Ashvamedha Yajna (to expand territory)
Supported by:
- Senami:- He helped the Rajan to expand the Territory.
- Sangrihitri:-Collected taxes (Bali) from people
- Priests (Brahmins) – guided religious matters
- Officials – helped in administration
Social Life
- Society became more complex and unequal.
- Varna system became rigid and hereditary (by birth).
- Family system was patriarchal (father as head).
- Widow remarrige was looked down upon.
Position of women declined:
- Less participation in assemblies
- Education and rights reduced
- Rise of social inequalities and class differences.
The Four Varnas:- Society was divided into four fixed groups:
- Brahmins – Priests, teachers (highest status)
- Kshatriyas – Rulers and warriors
- Vaishyas – Farmers, traders, merchants
- Shudras – Servants, laborers (lowest status) they had no rights and were ill treated and consider untouchable.
- Key Change:- In earlier times, varna was flexible; now it became strict and birth-based.
Religion:- Religion became more complex.
- Importance of yajnas (sacrifices) increased.
- Brahmins gained power as they conducted rituals.
Worship shifted:- From nature gods → ritual-based practices
New gods became important:
- Brahma, Vishnu, & Shiva
- Yajna was tthe most common ritual.
- Beliefs in karma (actions) and rebirth developed.
- Rituals became expensive and elaborate
Economy
- Shift from pastoral to agriculture-based economy.
- Use of iron tools improved farming.
- Main crops: rice, wheat, barley.
- Growth of trade and commerce.
- Use of barter system continued.
- Emergence of craftsmen and artisans.
- Kings collected taxes (Bali) from people.
- Early forms of currency:- Nishka, Satamana & Krshnala were also used as medium of exchange.
Literature :-The Vedas were expanded and new parts were added: Three Vedas were composed during this period.
- Sama Veda – Hymns set to music and singing
- Yajur Veda – Rules and formulas for performing yajnas (sacrifices)
- Atharva Veda – Spells, charms, and everyday prayers
Upanishads (Philosophy):- Upanishads focus on deep philosophical ideas. & Important questions discussed:
- What is God?
- What is life?
- What happens after death?
- Karma → Actions of a person
- Moksha → Salvation (freedom from rebirth)
- A person’s life depends on past actions.
- People followed Dharma (righteous living).
- Over time:- Superstitions and rituals increased., Religion became more complex.
(a) Ramayana
- Written by Valmiki
- Story of Lord Rama (incarnation of Vishnu)
- Main characters:
- Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Hanuman
- Main event:- War between Rama and Ravana, Rama defeats Ravana and rescues Sita
- Written by Ved Vyasa
- Describes war between:
- Pandavas and Kauravas
- Battle of Kurukshetra
- Important Text:
- Bhagavad Gita
- Teaches that:
- Soul is immortal
- Body dies but soul does not
- Provide information about:
- Political life
- Social conditions
- Teach moral values and ideals of life
(a) Mathematics
- Anka Ganit → Arithmetic
- Rekha Ganit → Geometry
- Beej Ganit → Algebra
- Known as Jyotish
- Could:
- Make calendars
- Predict eclipses
Four Stages of Life (Ashramas):- The life of a person was divided into four stages, called Ashramas:
(1) Brahmacharya (Student Life)
- First stage of life
- Focus on education and discipline
- Lived with guru in Gurukul
- Practiced self-control and learning
(2) Grihastha (Householder Life):- Second stage
- Person marries and starts a family
- Earns livelihood and fulfills responsibilities
- Supports society and other Ashramas
(3) Vanaprastha (Retirement Stage):- Third stage
- Person gradually withdraws from family life
- Goes to forest or lives simply
- Focus on meditation and spiritual life
(4) Sannyasa (Renunciation Stage):- Final stage
- Person gives up all worldly ties
- Devotes life to spiritual knowledge and salvation (moksha)
1. Gurukul System of Education
- Education followed the Guru–Shishya tradition.
- Students lived in a Gurukul (teacher’s home).
- Education was oral (learning by listening and memorizing).
Subjects Taught
- Vedic literature
- Grammar
- Mathematics
- Warfare skills (archery, chariot riding, wrestling)
Features
- Simple and disciplined life
- Students performed daily duties and served the guru
- After education, students paid Gurudakshina (fees as respect)
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