दिव्यांगता (Divyangta) का अर्थ और भारतीय कानून के अनुसार इसके प्रकार

दिव्यांगता (Divyangta) का अर्थ और भारतीय कानून के अनुसार इसके प्रकार 

दिव्यांगता (Divyangta) का अर्थ है—किसी व्यक्ति की शारीरिक, मानसिक, बौद्धिक या संवेदनात्मक क्षमताओं में ऐसा दीर्घकालिक बाधा जो उसके दैनिक जीवन के कार्यों को करने में अड़चन पैदा करती हो। सरल भाषा में कहें तो यह ऐसी स्थिति होती है जिसमें व्यक्ति को शिक्षा, रोजगार, संचार, या सामाजिक भागीदारी में कठिनाई होती है।

भारतीय कानून के अनुसार दिव्यांगता की परिभाषा:

• RPWD Act 2016 (Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016) के अनुसार, दिव्यांग व्यक्ति वह है—
• "जिसे शारीरिक, मानसिक, बौद्धिक या संवेदी दुर्बलता है जो लंबे समय तक बनी रहती है और उसे समाज में बराबरी के आधार पर भाग लेने में बाधा पहुंचाती है।"

भारतीय कानून (RPWD Act, 2016) के अनुसार दिव्यांगता के प्रकार (Types of Disability):

भारत सरकार ने 21 प्रकार की दिव्यांगता को मान्यता दी है। इन्हें मुख्यतः 5 वर्गों में बांटा जा सकता है:

1. शारीरिक दिव्यांगता (Physical Disability):

• बौनापन (Dwarfism)
• अस्थि बाधित (Locomotor Disability)
• मस्कुलर डिस्ट्रॉफी (Muscular Dystrophy)
• एसिड अटैक पीड़ित (Acid Attack Victim)
• सेलीब्रल पाल्सी (Cerebral Palsy)
• पोलियो या किसी कारणवश अंग का उपयोग न कर पाना

2. बौद्धिक दिव्यांगता (Intellectual Disability):

• बौद्धिक मंदता (Intellectual Disability)
• विशिष्ट शिक्षा सम्बन्धी अक्षमता (Specific Learning Disabilities)
• जैसे – डिस्लेक्सिया, डिस्कैल्कुलिया
• स्वायत्तता विकार (Autism Spectrum Disorder)

3. मानसिक व्यवहार संबंधी विकार (Mental Behaviour/Illness):

• मानसिक रोग (Mental Illness)
• जैसे – अवसाद (Depression), स्किज़ोफ्रेनिया आदि

4. दृश्य और श्रवण दिव्यांगता (Visual & Hearing Disabilities):

• दृष्टिहीनता (Blindness)
• कम दृष्टि (Low Vision)
• बहरापन (Deafness)
• कम सुनाई देना (Hard of Hearing)
• बधिर-बोल न सकने वाले (Deaf and Mute)

5. विविध दिव्यांगता (Multiple & Other Disabilities):

• विविध दिव्यांगता (Multiple Disabilities) – दो या अधिक दिव्यांगताओं का होना
• थैलेसेमिया
• हीमोफीलिया
• सिकल सेल रोग (Sickle Cell Disease)
• क्रोनिक न्यूरोलॉजिकल कंडीशन – जैसे मल्टीपल स्क्लेरोसिस, पार्किंसन रोग
• स्पीच एंड लैंग्वेज डिसएबिलिटी (बोलने और भाषा में अक्षम)

प्रसव के दौरान माँ और बच्चे को होने वाली परेशानियाँ

प्रसव के दौरान माँ और बच्चे को होने वाली परेशानियाँ

प्रसव (डिलीवरी) एक स्त्री के जीवन का सबसे महत्वपूर्ण, भावनात्मक और संवेदनशील समय होता है। यह केवल एक शारीरिक प्रक्रिया नहीं, बल्कि मानसिक, सामाजिक और पारिवारिक स्तर पर भी बहुत गहरी भूमिका निभाती है। प्रसव के दौरान यदि उचित देखभाल, चिकित्सकीय सहायता और स्वच्छता का ध्यान न रखा जाए, तो माँ और नवजात शिशु – दोनों को गंभीर समस्याओं का सामना करना पड़ सकता है।

इस लेख की मदद से हम विस्तार से जानेंगे कि प्रसव के समय माँ और बच्चे को कौन-कौन सी परेशानियाँ हो सकती हैं और उनसे कैसे बचा जा सकता है।

माँ को होने वाली प्रमुख परेशानियाँ:

1. अत्यधिक रक्तस्राव (Postpartum Hemorrhage):

प्रसव के बाद अत्यधिक खून बहना माँ की जान के लिए खतरा बन सकता है, खासकर यदि समय पर रोकथाम न हो।

2. प्रसव पीड़ा में असामान्य देरी (Prolonged Labor):

जब प्रसव बहुत लंबा खिंचता है तो माँ थक जाती है और संक्रमण या सर्जरी की ज़रूरत बढ़ जाती है।

3. प्री-एक्लेम्पसिया (High Blood Pressure during Pregnancy):

यह स्थिति गर्भावस्था के अंतिम चरण या प्रसव के समय माँ के उच्च रक्तचाप और मूत्र में प्रोटीन की उपस्थिति से उत्पन्न होती है, जो माँ और शिशु दोनों के लिए जानलेवा हो सकती है।

4. संक्रमण (Infection):

गर्भाशय, योनि या ऑपरेशन स्थल पर संक्रमण होने की संभावना होती है यदि साफ-सफाई का ध्यान न रखा जाए।

5. मानसिक तनाव और भय:

पहली बार माँ बनने वाली महिलाएं अक्सर डर और घबराहट का अनुभव करती हैं, जिससे प्रसव की प्रक्रिया में और कठिनाई हो सकती है।

6. ऑपरेशन से जुड़ी जटिलताएँ (C-Section Complications):

यदि सिजेरियन डिलीवरी होती है, तो संक्रमण, रक्तस्राव, घाव न भरना जैसी समस्याएँ हो सकती हैं।

बच्चे को होने वाली प्रमुख परेशानियाँ:

1. ऑक्सीजन की कमी (Birth Asphyxia):

अगर शिशु को प्रसव के दौरान पर्याप्त ऑक्सीजन नहीं मिलती, तो मस्तिष्क को क्षति पहुँच सकती है, जिससे मानसिक या शारीरिक विकलांगता हो सकती है।

2. मेकोनियम एस्पिरेशन सिंड्रोम (MAS):

जब शिशु जन्म से पहले या दौरान अपने मल (meconium) को सांस के जरिए अंदर ले लेता है, तब यह स्थिति होती है जो फेफड़ों के लिए गंभीर हो सकती है।

3. कम वजन (Low Birth Weight):

ढाई किलो से कम वजन वाले शिशुओं में बीमारियों का खतरा अधिक होता है और उन्हें विशेष देखभाल की आवश्यकता होती है।

4. जन्मजात दोष (Congenital Defects):

कुछ बच्चों को जन्म से ही दिल, फेफड़े, किडनी या मस्तिष्क से जुड़ी विकृतियाँ हो सकती हैं, जिनका समय रहते इलाज जरूरी है।

5. हाइपोग्लाइसीमिया (Hypoglycemia):

बच्चे में रक्त शर्करा की कमी, विशेष रूप से डायबिटिक माँ के बच्चों में देखने को मिलती है, जो मस्तिष्क को नुकसान पहुँचा सकती है।

6. सेप्सिस (Neonatal Sepsis):

यह एक गंभीर संक्रमण है जो जन्म के कुछ घंटों या दिनों के भीतर हो सकता है। यदि इलाज में देरी हो, तो यह जानलेवा भी हो सकता है।

7. हाइपोथर्मिया (Hypothermia):

बच्चे का शरीर का तापमान सामान्य से नीचे चला जाना, विशेषकर समय से पहले जन्म लेने पर, खतरनाक हो सकता है।

8. ब्रेन हेमरेज (IVH):

समय से पहले जन्म लेने वाले शिशुओं में मस्तिष्क में रक्तस्राव हो सकता है जिससे मानसिक विकास में रुकावट आ सकती है।

9. कंधे की अटकाव (Shoulder Dystocia):

जब शिशु का कंधा माँ की श्रोणि में फंस जाता है, तब उसकी नसों या हड्डियों को नुकसान हो सकता है।

10. Umbilical Cord Prolapse (गर्भनाल का पहले आ जाना):

अगर गर्भनाल शिशु से पहले बाहर आ जाए, तो शिशु को ऑक्सीजन मिलनी बंद हो सकती है और उसकी जान को खतरा हो सकता है।

 बचाव के उपाय और समाधान:

प्रसव पूर्व नियमित जाँच (Antenatal Check-ups):

समय-समय पर डॉक्टर से जाँच कराना माँ और बच्चे की सेहत को सुरक्षित रखने का पहला कदम है।

स्वस्थ आहार और जीवनशैली:

गर्भवती स्त्री को पौष्टिक भोजन, हल्का व्यायाम और भरपूर आराम करना चाहिए।

प्रशिक्षित डॉक्टर और स्टाफ की उपस्थिति:

प्रसव के समय केवल प्रशिक्षित स्वास्थ्यकर्मी की देखरेख में ही डिलीवरी कराना सुरक्षित होता है।

विशेष नवजात देखभाल इकाई (NICU):

कमजोर या बीमार नवजात शिशुओं के लिए अस्पतालों में गहन देखभाल इकाई होनी चाहिए।

स्तनपान की शीघ्र शुरुआत:

माँ का पहला दूध शिशु की रोग प्रतिरोधक क्षमता को बढ़ाता है और संक्रमण से रक्षा करता है।

साफ-सफाई:

प्रसव स्थल, उपकरण और माँ की शारीरिक सफाई पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए।

मानसिक समर्थन और पारिवारिक सहयोग:

माँ को भावनात्मक सहारा देना उसके आत्मबल और सकारात्मक सोच को मजबूत बनाता है।

निष्कर्ष:

प्रसव जीवन की एक चमत्कारी प्रक्रिया के साथ माँ के लिए एक नया जीवन भी होता है, लेकिन इसके दौरान माँ और शिशु दोनों को कई प्रकार की जटिलताओं और खतरों का सामना करना पड़ सकता है। इन समस्याओं से बचने के लिए जागरूकता, समय पर चिकित्सकीय देखभाल और भावनात्मक सहयोग अत्यंत आवश्यक है। एक सुरक्षित प्रसव केवल एक स्वस्थ माँ और बच्चे को जन्म नहीं देता, बल्कि समाज में स्वास्थ्य और खुशहाली की नींव भी रखता है।

Important questions, Economic Chapter - 3 Money and Credit

 Economic Chapter - 3 Money and Credit

MCQs

1. Which of the following is a modern form of money?
a) Grains
b) Gold
c) Silver
d) Cheque

2. Which organization issues currency notes on behalf of the central government in India?
a) State Bank of India
b) Reserve Bank of India
c) Punjab National Bank
d) Ministry of Finance

3. Which one of the following is the main source of income for banks?
a) Deposits from customers
b) Loans given by RBI
c) Interest on loans given to borrowers
d) Interest on deposits

4. Which among the following is an informal source of credit?
a) Bank
b) Cooperative Society
c) Moneylender
d) Self-Help Group

5. What is the main reason why banks demand collateral while giving loans?
a) To ensure repayment
b) To earn profit
c) To check black money
d) To reduce lending

2 or 3 Mark Questions

1. What is barter system? Why was it replaced by money?
2. What is Double Conincidence of want?
3. Define Demand Deposits.
4. Define Cheque. How does it differ from a currency note?
5. What is collateral? Give two examples.
6. Explain the difference between formal sector loans and informal sector loans.
7. How do Self-Help Groups (SHGs) help borrowers?
8. Why do rich households depend more on formal sources of credit while the poor depend on informal sources?
9. State two features of modern currency.

5 Mark Questions

1.  Explain the role of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in the Indian banking system.
2.  Why are terms of credit different for different borrowers? Explain with examples.
3.  Why do we need to expand formal sources of credit in India? Explain.
4.  Explain how credit plays a positive and a negative role in development. Support your answer with suitable examples.
5.  Describe the functioning of Self-Help Groups (SHGs). How do they help rural borrowers?
6. Write the function of banks.
7. How Reserve Bank of India keep an eye on banks.

CHAPTER- 2 NATIONALISM IN INDIA IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

CHAPTER- 2 

NATIONALISM IN INDIA 

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Who led the peasants in the Awadh region during the Non-Cooperation Movement?

a) Jawaharlal Nehru

b) Sardar Patel

c) Baba Ramchandra

d) Subhas Chandra Bose

Answer: c) Baba Ramchandra

2. The Simon Commission was sent to India in:

a) 1917

b) 1927

c) 1935

d) 1942

Answer: b) 1927

3. Who was the President of the Lahore Session of Congress in 1929?

a) Mahatma Gandhi

b) Jawaharlal Nehru

c) Motilal Nehru

d) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

Answer: b) Jawaharlal Nehru

4. Which of the following was the main demand of the Simon Commission?

a) To give India Dominion Status

b) To frame a new Constitution for India

c) To develop heavy industries

d) To increase agriculture production

Answer: b) To frame a new Constitution for India

5. Who designed the Swaraj flag in 1921?

a) Mahatma Gandhi

b) Pingali Venkayya

c) Rabindranath Tagore

d) Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Answer: b) Pingali Venkayya

6. The Rowlatt Act was passed in which year?

a) 1915

b) 1916

c) 1917

d) 1919

Answer: d) 1919

7. Which industrial organization supported the Civil Disobedience Movement?

a) FICCI

b) CII

c) ASSOCHAM

d) Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress

Answer: a) FICCI

8. The Dandi March started from Sabarmati Ashram to which village?

a) Bardoli

b) Surat

c) Dandi

d) Champaran

Answer: c) Dandi

9. In which year Chaura Chauri incedence took place?

a) 1919

b) 1922

c) 1920

d) 1923

Answer: b) 1922

10. Who led the militant guerrilla movement in Gudem Hills?

a) Baba Ramchandra

b) Alluri Sitarama Raju

c) Birsa Munda

d) Subhas Chandra Bose

Answer: b) Alluri Sitarama Raju

11. Which community boycotted the Simon Commission by raising ‘Go Back Simon’?

a) British Officials

b) Indians

c) French

d) Dutch

Answer: b) Indians

12. Why did the rich peasants participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement?

a) They wanted high taxes

b) They wanted abolition of rent

c) They wanted reduction of revenue demand

d) They wanted new railways

Answer: c) They wanted reduction of revenue demand

13. The Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed on which date?

a) 15 August 1947

b) 26 January 1930

c) 2 October 1929

d) 13 April 1919

Answer: b) 26 January 1930

14. Who was writer of Anandmath?

a) Mahatma Gandhi

b) Jawharlal Nehru

c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

d) Abanindranath Tagore

Answer: c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

15. Which among the following leaders was not related to the Khilafat Movement?

a) Ali Brothers

b) Mahatma Gandhi

c) Muhammad Ali Jinnah

d) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Answer: c) Muhammad Ali Jinnah

16. Which of the following was Mahatma Gandhi’s first mass movement in India?

a) Non-Cooperation Movement

b) Civil Disobedience Movement

c) Champaran Satyagraha

d) Quit India Movement

Answer: c) Champaran Satyagraha

17. Who wrote Hind Swaraj?

a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak

b) Mahatma Gandhi

c) Jawaharlal Nehru

d) Lala Lajpat Rai

Answer: b) Mahatma Gandhi

18. Which Act gave the British government extensive powers to repress political activities?

a) Rowlatt Act

b) Pitt’s India Act

c) Regulating Act

d) Government of India Act, 1935

Answer: a) Rowlatt Act

19. Where did the Jallianwala Bagh massacre take place?

a) Amritsar

b) Lahore

c) Delhi

d) Lucknow

Answer: a) Amritsar

20. Which session of the Congress declared ‘Purna Swaraj’ as its goal?

a) Lahore Session, 1929

b) Lucknow Session, 1916

c) Nagpur Session, 1920

d) Calcutta Session, 1906

Answer: a) Lahore Session, 1929

21. Who draw first Bharat Mata image

a) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

b) Abindra Nath Tagore

c) Rabindra Nath Tagore

d) Mahatma Gandhi

Answer: a) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

22. Who painted famous image Bharat Mata

a) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

b) Abindra Nath Tagore

c) Rabindra Nath Tagore

d) Mahatma Gandhi

Answer: b) Abindra Nath Tagore

23.  How did the image of Bharat Mata inspire Indians?

a) To wear foreign clothes

b) To cooperate with the British

c) To sacrifice for the nation

d) To pay taxes honestly

Answer: c) To sacrifice for the nation

24.. Bharat Mata was portrayed in which form?

a) As a farmer

b) As a goddess

c) As a British officer

d) As an industrial worker

Answer: b) As a goddess

25.  What feeling did the image of Bharat Mata evoke?

a) Religious division

b) Praise for colonial rule

c) Unity and sacrifice

d) Industrialization

Answer: c) Unity and sacrifice

26.  What symbols were usually shown in Bharat Mata’s images?

a) Machines and factories

b) Flag, lion, lotus

c) Railway stations

d) British soldiers

Answer: b) Flag, lion, lotus

27. Bharat Mata became a symbol of which ideology?

a) Colonialism

b) Imperialism

c) Nationalism

d) Globalization

Answer: c) Nationalism

28. Eight lotus in Indian flag representing.

a) Colonialism

b) Imperialism

c) Eight Provinces 

d) Globalization

Answer: c) Eight Provinces

29. Crescent moon representing

a) Hindu and Muslims

b) Imperialism

c) Eight Provinces 

d) Globalization

Answer: a) Hindu and Muslims

30. Which colors was in flag draw by Gandhi ji.

a) Red, green and White

b) Yellow, green and red

c) White, black and green

d) Green, yellow and blue

Answer: a)  Red, green and White

 Map-based Questions

Locate and label any 2 on an outline political map of India:

1.  Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar, Punjab) – site of the massacre in 1919.
2.  Champaran (Bihar) – first Satyagraha by Gandhi for indigo farmers.
3.  Ahmedabad (Gujarat) – mill workers’ strike led by Gandhi.
4.  Kheda (Gujarat) – peasants’ Satyagraha for remission of tax.
5. Locate on map where congress session held during September,1920 and December1920

Short Answer Questions (2-3 Marks)

Q1. What was the main aim of the Non-Cooperation Movement? (2 Marks)

Answer: The main aim was to resist British rule in India through non-violent means by boycotting British goods, institutions, and titles, and to demand Swaraj (self-rule).

Q2. Why did Gandhiji call off the Non-Cooperation Movement? (2 Marks)

Answer: The movement was called off due to the violent incident at Chauri Chaura in 1922, where a mob set fire to a police station killing policemen. Gandhiji believed the movement had strayed from its non-violent path.

Q3. What was the significance of the Lahore Session of the Congress in 1929? (3 Marks)

Answer: At the Lahore Session, the Congress declared Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as its ultimate goal, passed a resolution to launch Civil Disobedience, and decided to celebrate 26th January 1930 as Independence Day.

Q4. What was Martial Law?

Q5. What was the reason of slow down of movement in cities?

Q6. Who was Alluri Sitaram Raju?

Q7. What was Inland Emigration Act of 1859?

Q8. Why Tribal Rebelled against colonial?

Q9. Who formed Swaraj Party and why?

Q10. How Indians greet Simon Commission?

Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

Q1. Describe the main features of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Answer:

• Started with the Dandi March in March 1930 when Gandhi broke the Salt Law.
• People refused to pay taxes, broke colonial laws (salt, forest, liquor).
• Foreign cloth and goods were boycotted, people resigned from government jobs.
• The movement spread to countryside – peasants, tribals, and women participated.
• The British responded with brutal repression, arrests, and imprisonments.
• Ended temporarily after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact but resumed after failure of Second Round Table Conference.

Q2. Explain how the idea of nationalism spread among different social groups in India.

Answer:

• Peasants: Joined due to oppressive taxes, inspired by promise of Swaraj.
• Tribals: Fought forest laws that restricted their livelihoods.
• Business Class: Supported as they wanted protection from British economic policies.
• Women: Actively participated in picketing liquor shops, boycotts, processions.
• Students and Teachers: Left government schools and colleges.
• Muslims, Industrial Workers: Some participated but with regional variations.
• The idea was spread through songs, symbols (tricolour flag), newspapers, folk tales.

Q3. Explain the factors that led to the growth of nationalism in India.

Q4. Describe the events and impact of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

Q5. Highlight the main features and significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Q6. How did the Civil Disobedience Movement start and what were its main impacts?

Q7. How did different social groups participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement?

Q8. Explain the role of symbols and culture in the spread of nationalism in India.

नेटिव भारतीय खेल: CBSE का योगदान नेटिव भारतीय खेलों को बढ़ावा देने में

  नेटिव भारतीय खेल: CBSE का योगदान नेटिव भारतीय खेलों को बढ़ावा देने में

आज के दौर में जहाँ बच्चे मोबाइल और वीडियो गेम्स में अधिक समय बिताने लगे हैं, वहीं ‘भारतीय खेल’ पहल ने पारंपरिक भारतीय खेलों को फिर से जीवन में उतारने की कोशिश की है। यह पहल न सिर्फ बच्चों के शारीरिक विकास के लिए जरूरी है, बल्कि हमारी सांस्कृतिक विरासत को जीवित रखने में भी मददगार है।

स्कूल के नज़रिए से

• स्कूल शिक्षा का सिर्फ किताबों तक सीमित रहना अब पुराना विचार है। नई शिक्षा नीति (NEP 2020) ने खेलों को पढ़ाई के बराबर महत्व दिया है। नेटिव भारतीय खेल जैसे कबड्डी, खो-खो, मलखंभ, पिट्ठू, गिल्ली-डंडा आदि को स्कूल खेलों में शामिल किया जा रहा है।
• इससे बच्चों में टीम भावना, सहनशीलता और नेतृत्व क्षमता का विकास होता है।
• कई स्कूल अब हर सप्ताह ‘भारतीय खेल दिवस’ मनाते हैं जिससे बच्चों में खेलों के प्रति रुचि बढ़ रही है।

छात्रों के नजरिए से

• छात्रों के लिए यह पहल बहुत रोमांचक है क्योंकि ये खेल खेलने में आसान होते हैं, ज्यादा संसाधन नहीं चाहिए होते और इन्हें किसी भी मैदान या खाली जगह में खेला जा सकता है।
• ये खेल बच्चों को शारीरिक रूप से सक्रिय रखते हैं और खेल भावना विकसित करते हैं।
• साथ ही, ये खेल बच्चों को ग्रुप में मिल-जुलकर खेलने की आदत सिखाते हैं, जिससे दोस्ती और आपसी समझ भी मजबूत होती है।

अभिभावकों के नजरिए से

• अभिभावक भी अब समझने लगे हैं कि नेटिव भारतीय खेल बच्चों के लिए मोबाइल गेम्स से कहीं बेहतर हैं।
• गांवों में तो आज भी ये खेल बच्चों की पहली पसंद हैं।
• अभिभावक चाहते हैं कि उनके बच्चे स्वस्थ रहें और स्क्रीन टाइम कम करें।
• अतः वे स्कूलों से आग्रह कर रहे हैं कि इन पारंपरिक खेलों को स्कूल कार्यक्रमों में जरूरी रूप से शामिल किया जाए।
• कई माता-पिता स्वयं भी बच्चों के साथ ये खेल खेलते हैं और बच्चों को पारंपरिक खेलों की कहानियां सुनाते हैं।

भविष्य में संभावनाएँ और योगदान

• ‘भारतीय खेल’ पहल से भविष्य में कई संभावनाएँ हैं:
• ये खेल राष्ट्रीय और अंतरराष्ट्रीय स्तर पर पहचान पा सकते हैं।
• ग्रामीण प्रतिभाओं को पहचानकर प्रोफेशनल ट्रेनिंग दी जा सकती है।
• सरकार और स्कूल मिलकर ‘खेल गांव’ बना सकते हैं जहाँ बच्चों को पारंपरिक खेलों की कोचिंग दी जाए।
• बच्चों में खेलों के माध्यम से कैरियर के नए विकल्प खुल सकते हैं जैसे खेल शिक्षक, कोच या प्रोफेशनल खिलाड़ी।
• सबसे बड़ी बात, हमारी नई पीढ़ी अपनी जड़ों और संस्कृति से जुड़ी रहेगी।

नेटिव भारतीय खेलों को बढ़ावा देने के लिए CBSE द्वारा उठाए गए कदम   

नई शिक्षा नीति (NEP 2020) के अनुसार

• CBSE ने नई शिक्षा नीति 2020 को अपनाते हुए खेलों को पाठ्यक्रम का अनिवार्य हिस्सा बना दिया है।
• अब खेल सिर्फ सह-पाठ्यक्रम गतिविधि नहीं बल्कि ‘समग्र विकास’ का आधार माना जा रहा है।
• CBSE सर्कुलर के अनुसार हर स्कूल में सप्ताह में कम से कम एक दिन ‘खेल दिवस’ रखा जाता है जिसमें नेटिव भारतीय खेलों को प्राथमिकता दी जाती है।

इंट्रा स्कूल और इंटर स्कूल प्रतियोगिताएँ

• CBSE ने कई क्लस्टर, जोनल और राष्ट्रीय स्तर की खेल प्रतियोगिताएँ आयोजित करनी शुरू की हैं।
• इनमें कबड्डी, खो-खो, मलखंभ, कुश्ती जैसे पारंपरिक खेलों के इवेंट्स शामिल किए जाते हैं।
• इससे बच्चों में इन खेलों के प्रति रुचि बढ़ती है और ग्रामीण प्रतिभाएँ भी मंच पर आती हैं।

 खेल शिक्षक और कोच नियुक्ति

CBSE स्कूलों में अब फिजिकल एजुकेशन टीचर्स को पारंपरिक खेलों का प्रशिक्षण भी दिया जाता है ताकि वे बच्चों को केवल क्रिकेट या फुटबॉल तक सीमित न रखें, बल्कि गिल्ली-डंडा, पिट्ठू, लंगड़ी, रस्साकशी जैसे खेल भी सिखाएँ।

खेल-आधारित प्रोजेक्ट वर्क

• कई CBSE स्कूलों में प्रोजेक्ट वर्क के तौर पर भी पारंपरिक खेलों का अध्ययन कराया जाता है — जैसे:
• किस खेल की उत्पत्ति कहाँ हुई?
• गाँव में कौन-कौन से खेल खेले जाते हैं?
• उनकी तकनीक और नियम क्या हैं?
• इससे बच्चों को खेलों की ऐतिहासिक और सांस्कृतिक जानकारी भी मिलती है।

अभिभावकों और समुदाय को जोड़ना

CBSE स्कूल अब ‘ग्रैंड पैरेंट्स डे’, ‘लोकल गेम्स वीक’ जैसे आयोजन करते हैं। इसमें बच्चे, माता-पिता और दादा-दादी साथ मिलकर पारंपरिक खेल खेलते हैं।

इससे सामुदायिक भागीदारी भी बढ़ती है और खेलों के प्रति अपनापन आता है।

डिजिटल प्लेटफॉर्म पर जागरूकता

CBSE अपने पोर्टल्स और स्कूलों के सोशल मीडिया पर भी नेटिव खेलों से जुड़े वीडियो, नियम और कहानियाँ शेयर करता है। इससे बच्चों को खेलों के नए-नए रूप जानने को मिलते हैं।

निष्कर्ष

CBSE ने यह सुनिश्चित किया है कि शिक्षा प्राप्ति के लिए छात्र  सिर्फ किताबों तक सीमित  न रहे, बल्कि बच्चों के कुल व्यक्तित्व विकास में खेल भी बराबरी से शामिल हों — खासकर भारतीय पारंपरिक खेल, जो हमारी संस्कृति और समाज की पहचान हैं। नेटिव भारतीय खेलों को बढ़ावा देना सिर्फ शारीरिक व्यायाम या मनोरंजन तक सीमित नहीं है, बल्कि यह हमारे संस्कृति गौरव, सामूहिकता, और स्वस्थ जीवन शैली का प्रतीक है।

छात्र, अभिभावक और स्कूल मिलकर इस पहल को सफल बना सकते हैं। आज जरूरत है कि हम सब मिलकर इन खेलों को फिर से हर गली-मोहल्ले, स्कूल और गांव तक पहुँचाएँ और ‘खेलो इंडिया, बढ़ो इंडिया’ के सपने को साकार करें।

अब प्यार नहीं जताता कोई अब गले नहीं लगाता कोई

 अब प्यार नहीं जताता कोई

अब गले नहीं लगाता कोई

आ गए है उम्र के उस पड़ाव पर

अब अपना नहीं बनाता कोई

ये कैसी कश्मकश है मन के अंदर

अब ज़िया नहीं जलाता कोई

प्यार तो अब भी है दरमियाँ

अब वैसे नहीं जताता कोई

इस क़दर उलझ गए है जीवन के चक्रव्यूह में

महफिल मे भी तन्हा रह जाता है कोई

नजाने किस पथ पर, चला जा रहा हूँ

 नजाने किस पथ पर, चला जा रहा हूँ

शायद कदमों को अपने, छला जा रहा हूँ

ना मंज़िल है अपनी, ना कोई ठिकाना

दाएं - बाएँ करता है, मुझे सारा ज़माना

रुक कर पथ पर, मैं बाट खोजता हूँ

आगे चलता हूँ तो, मैं फिर सोचता हूँ

चारों ओर देख कर, खुद को खरोंचता हूँ

सोचता हूँ, मंज़िल कहाँ है अपनी

चल चल कर क़दम भी अब हो गए जख्मी

नाजाने जीवन मे कैसा भ्रम है पाला

भ्रमित है जीवन, मृगतृष्णा का जाला

ज़िंदगी मे एक दोस्त तो, ऐसा भी होना चाहिए

ज़िंदगी मे एक दोस्त तो, ऐसा भी होना चाहिए

जिसके पास हर दर्द के लिए एक मरहम होना चाहिए

कर सको अपने मन की बात जिससे  तुम

काँधे मे सिर रख, उसके रो सको तुम

दूर हो, फिर भी दूरी का एहसास न हो

मौन हो अधर, लेकिन प्यासे जज़्बात न हो

अंदर की व्यथा को वो जान ले 

हंसी के पीछे छिपे आँसुओ को पहचान ले,

रूह की माफिक साथ खड़ा नज़र वो आए 

वक़्त की आंधियों में वो साथ निभाए,

भूपेंद्र रावत 

कदमो की मदद से लांघा है, पहाड़ों की सबसे

मैंने देखा है, पहाड़ों को

और अपने अदने से 

कदमो की मदद से 

लांघा है, पहाड़ों की सबसे 

ऊंची चोटियों को

धरातल से जुड़े हुए,

घाटी बनाते, तथा ऊबड़-खाबड़

रास्ते भी, नहीं तोड़ पाये 

कभी जज़्बा मेरा

लेकिन, पहाड़ की सबसे ऊंची 

चोंटीयां भी नहीं छू पाई

कभी आसमां  को ,

बल्कि, उन्हें भी छिपना पड़ा

बादलों की ओंट मे

गुजरते वक़्त के साथ 

कमजोर होते पहाड़

झुके, और भूस्खलन के रूप मे

आखिर मिल गए धरातल मे   

      

Chapter - 12 Undestanding Markets

 Chapter - 12 Undestanding Markets

Buyer and Seller Interaction:- The buyer and seller discussed the price of the goods being sold.

Initial Offer:- The seller quoted a high price for the item.

Counter Offer:- The buyer offered a lower price, stating it was too expensive.

Bargaining:- Both parties exchanged reasons — the seller explained quality or scarcity, the buyer emphasized budget or availability elsewhere.

Agreement:- Finally, they agreed on a mid-point price acceptable to both.

Outcome:- The transaction was completed, showing how negotiation helps in settling on a fair price in markets.

Prices and Markets

1. What happens if the seller fixes the price very high?

• Buyers may not be willing to purchase.
• Fewer transactions take place.
• The seller may not earn as expected.
• Leads to unsold stock of goods.

2. What happens if the seller fixes the price very low?

• Many buyers will want to buy.
• Seller may run out of stock quickly.
• It may not be profitable for the seller.
• Seller suffers loss or low profit.

3. What happens when the price is just right?

• Both buyers and sellers are satisfied.
• The price is affordable for buyers and profitable for sellers.
• This leads to a balanced market with regular transactions.

Markets Around Us

1. Types of Markets:

a. Physical Market

• Buyers and sellers meet face-to-face.
• Examples: Weekly haats, local markets, malls, street vendors.

b. Online Market

• Transactions happen using apps or websites.
• No need to meet physically.
• Goods and services like groceries, electronics, online classes are available.

c. Stock Market

• No goods are exchanged.
• Shares of companies are bought and sold.
• More details are studied in higher classes.

2. Domestic and International Markets:

a. Domestic Market

• Trade happens within the country.
• Example: Buying paper from Indian paper mills to print books.

b. International Market

• Trade happens between countries.
• Example: India exporting spices to other countries or importing mobile phones.

3. Wholesale and Retail Markets:

a. Wholesalers

• Buy in large quantities from farmers or manufacturers.
• Store goods in godowns or cold storage (for perishables).
• Supply to retailers.

b. Retailers

• Sell to the final consumers (like us).
• Sell in small quantities.
• Examples: Grocery shops, salons, restaurants.

4. Distributors and Aggregators:

a. Distributors

• Help wholesalers reach distant retailers.
• Example: Milk middlemen in the AMUL story.

b. Aggregators (in online markets)

• Receive goods in bulk from manufacturers.
• Store in warehouses.
• Deliver products to customers after online orders.

The Role of Markets in People’s Lives:

1. Economic Role of Markets:

• Markets connect producers and consumers.
• Help people access goods and services they cannot produce themselves.
• Enable transactions that support individuals, households, and businesses.

2. Example – Aakriti the Artist:

• Aakriti makes oil paintings but finds it hard to sell them.
• Some products like art, antiques, or handmade crafts do not have a ready market.
• This affects sellers (hard to find buyers) and buyers (hard to find authentic sellers).

3. Ways Artists Can Find Buyers Today:

• Online platforms (websites, art apps, social media).
• Art exhibitions, fairs, and galleries.
• Partnering with interior designers or art dealers.
• Online auctions and marketplaces.

4. How Markets Benefit Society:

• Producers learn what people need (e.g., energy-efficient refrigerators).
• Encourages innovation and better quality.
• Markets help improve living standards over time.

5. Non-Economic Role of Markets:

• Markets build long-term relationships (e.g., with tailors, doctors, grocers).
• Some families have trusted vendors for generations.
• Markets support community bonding and social trust.

Government’s Role in the Market:

1. Why Government Intervenes in the Market:

• To ensure fair interactions between buyers and sellers.
• To protect consumers and producers from unfair practices.
• To correct imbalances where markets fail to work effectively.

2. Price Control by the Government:

a. Maximum Price (Price Ceiling):

• Set for essential goods like lifesaving drugs to make them affordable.
• Protects buyers from overpricing.

b. Minimum Price (Price Floor):

• Set for agricultural goods like wheat, paddy, and maize.
• Ensures farmers get fair payment.
• Minimum wages are also fixed to protect workers.
• If prices are too low: Producers lose interest.
• If prices are too high: Consumers suffer.

3. Ensuring Quality and Safety:

• Government enforces standards for goods and services.
• Especially important in healthcare (e.g., medicine approval and testing).
• Ensures safe, effective, and reliable products.

4. Controlling Negative Impacts (Externalities):

• Markets can create pollution or health risks (e.g., single-use plastic).
• Government regulates and restricts harmful production and waste.
• Also monitors weights and measures to prevent cheating.

5. Providing Public Goods:

• Some services do not generate profit, so the government provides them:
• Parks
• Roads
• Police and safety
• Welfare schemes
• Ensures equal access for all citizens.

6. Balanced Regulation:

• Government rules help markets function fairly.
• But too many rules can also make markets less efficient.

1. Government Certifications and Quality Marks:- These marks indicate that the product meets minimum safety and quality standards:

• FSSAI – For food safety
• Full form: Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
• Found on: Food packets (e.g., gram flour)
• Ensures: Food is safe to consume
• ISI Mark – For industrial and electrical goods
• Issued by: Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
• Found on: Electrical appliances, building materials, tyres
• Ensures: Product is safe and reliable
• AGMARK – For agricultural produce
• Full form: Agricultural Marketing
• Found on: Fruits, vegetables, cereals, spices, etc.
• Ensures: Purity and quality of agricultural items
• BEE Star Rating – For energy efficiency
• Full form: Bureau of Energy Efficiency
• Found on: TVs, refrigerators, ACs, etc.
• More stars = Less electricity usage = Lower bills + Good for environment

2. Word of Mouth

• Opinions from family, friends, and neighbours influence buying decisions.
• Trusted recommendations often come from personal experience.

3. Online Reviews and Ratings

• Found on shopping websites and apps.
• Consumers share experiences and rate products/services.
• Help in deciding whether to purchase or avoid a product.

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. What are the main features of a market? Recall a recent visit to a market to purchase a product. What are the different features of a market that you observed during this visit?

Answer:- Main features of a market include the presence of buyers and sellers, exchange of goods and services, price negotiation, competition, and multiple payment methods.

During my recent visit to a vegetable market, I observed many sellers, bargaining over prices, variety in products, and both cash and UPI payments being accepted.

2. Remember the epigraph from a famous economist at the beginning of the chapter? Discuss its relevance in the context of the chapter you have read.

Answer:- The epigraph by the economist highlights how markets are not just places for buying and selling, but also reflect human needs, choices, and interactions. This is relevant to the chapter as it explains how markets connect producers and consumers, determine prices, offer variety, build relationships, and influence society beyond economic exchanges.

3. In the example of buying and selling of guavas, imagine that the seller is getting a good price, and is able to make a profit. He will try to get more guavas from farmers to be able to sell them at the same price and increase his earnings. What is the farmer likely to do in this kind of a situation? Do you 

think he will start thinking about the demand for guavas in the next season? What is likely to be his response?

Answer:- Yes, the farmer is likely to notice the high demand for guavas and good prices. In response, he may plan to grow more guavas in the next season to earn more profit. He will think about market demand, prepare his land accordingly, and try to increase production to meet future demand.

4.  Match the following types of markets with their characteristics: 

Answer:- 

• Physical market – Requires physical presence of buyers and seller
• Online market – Buyers and sellers meet virtually and can transact at any time
• Domestic market – Lies within the boundaries of a nation
• International market – Goods and services flow outside the nation’s boundaries
• Wholesale market – Deals in bulk quantities
• Retail market – Serves the final consumers with goods and services

5. Prices are generally determined by the interaction between demand from buyers and supply by sellers. Can you think of products where prices are high despite lesser number of buyers demanding the product? What could be the reasons for that? 

Answer:- Yes, luxury items like gold, diamonds, or designer clothes often have high prices despite fewer buyers. This is because they are rare, have high production costs, or are seen as status symbols. Their value comes from quality, exclusivity, and brand reputation, not just demand.

6. Look at the real life situation that a retail seller of vegetables encountered: A family came to shop for vegetables. The price of beans that the seller on the cart was offering was ₹30 / kg. The lady started to bargain with the seller to bring the price down to ₹25 / kg. The seller protested and refused to sell at that price saying he would make a loss at that price. The lady walks away. The family then goes to a super bazaar nearby. They buy vegetables in the super bazaar where they pay ₹40 / kg for the beans that is neatly packed in a plastic bag. What are the reasons that the family does this? Are there factors that affect buying and selling which are not directly connected to price? 

Answer:- Yes, there are factors beyond price that affect buying and selling. In this case, the family may have bought beans from the super bazaar because of cleanliness, packaging, convenience, trust in quality, or comfort of shopping. These non-price factors like hygiene, reputation, and environment can influence a buyer’s decision.

7. There are some districts in India that are famous for growing tomatoes. However, during some seasons, the situation is not good for farmers. With a large quantity of harvest, there are reports of farmers throwing away their produce and all their hard work going to waste. Why do you think farmers do this? What role can wholesalers play in such situations? What are the possible ways of ensuring that the tomatoes are not wasted, and the farmers are also not at a loss?

Answer:- Farmers sometimes throw away tomatoes when there is overproduction and prices fall so low that they can’t even cover transportation costs. Wholesalers can help by storing or distributing the excess produce more efficiently. Possible solutions include creating food processing units (like making puree or ketchup), improving storage and transportation, connecting farmers directly to bigger markets, and government support through minimum support prices or timely procurement.

9. Choose any 5 products and check out the label with the certification signs discussed in the chapter. Did you find products that did not have a logo? Why do you think this is so?

Answer? 5 products and their certification signs:

• Milk packet – Shows the FSSAI logo.
• Electric iron – Has the ISI mark.
• Packaged honey – Has AGMARK and FSSAI.
• Refrigerator – Shows BEE Star Rating.
• Wheat flour packet – Has FSSAI, sometimes AGMARK.

Some products do not have a logo because:

• They may be locally made or unbranded.
• The producer may not have applied for certification.
• It may not be legally required for that item.

This can make it harder for consumers to judge the quality or safety of such products.

Chapter - 11 From Barter to Money

 Chapter - 11 From Barter to Money

• Barter System: Exchanging goods or services directly without using money.
• Example: Exchanging an eraser for a pencil if both parties need what the other has.
• Early Form of Trade: Oldest method of exchange used worldwide.
• Items Used: Cowrie shells, salt, tea, tobacco, cloth, cattle, seeds, etc.
• Double Coincidence of Wants: Both parties must need what the other is offering.
• Difficulties in Barter:
• Hard to find matching wants.
• No standard value for goods.
• Disagreements on fair exchange.
• Modern Exchange: Now, we use money (coins, notes) and digital payments for buying and selling.
• Divisibility Problem: You can't divide an ox to exchange a part of it for a smaller item like a sweater.
• Portability Problem: Large items like an ox are difficult to carry around for trade.
• Durability Problem: Items like wheat can rot or get spoiled, making them hard to store.
• Double Coincidence of Wants: Both traders must want exactly what the other has.
• Common Standard Measure of Value: Lacking a set value makes fair exchange difficult.

These problems led to the invention of money, which solved issues of divisibility, portability, durability, and value comparison.

Book Exchange Club:

• Trade old books with friends like a fun treasure hunt.
• Discover new stories without spending money.
• Example: Swap a jungle adventure book for a mystery book.

Clothes for Utensils Exchange:

• A vendor exchanges new utensils for old clothes.
• Households get useful items and clear out unwanted clothes.
• Vendors repurpose or resell collected materials.

Benefit:

• Both parties gain something useful without using money.
• A modern form of barter still seen today.

Basic Functions of Money in short points:

• Medium of Exchange:- Money replaced barter as a common method for buying and selling. Makes trade easier and more efficient.
• Store of Value:- Money can be saved and used later, unlike perishable goods (like wheat).
• Measure of Value:- Money provides a standard way to compare the value of goods and services. Prices help us understand worth easily.
• Standard of Deferred Payment:- Money allows people to make payments over time (e.g., school fees, salaries). Helps in planning and completing future transactions.
• Widely Accepted:- Money is accepted by everyone — from shopkeepers to workers to schools.

Coinage 

• Coinage and Minting:- Minting is the process of making coins in a mint (coin factory). Coins were among the earliest forms of money.
• Rulers and Coins:- Ancient rulers issued their own coins for use in their kingdoms. Powerful rulers' coins were accepted in many regions, helping trade.
• Materials Used:- Coins were made of precious metals like gold, silver, copper, or their alloys (metal mixtures for strength).
• Names and Symbols:- Early Indian coins were called kārṣhāpaṇas or paṇas. They had symbols (called rūpas) punched or engraved on them.
• Designs and Motifs:- Obverse (head) and reverse (tail) sides had different engravings like animals, trees, hills, deities, and rulers. Example: Chalukya coins had Varaha (Vishnu avatar) and a three-tiered parasol.
• Impact on Trade:- Coin usage boosted long-distance and maritime trade. Coins found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu show India’s strong trade links with the world.
• Conclusion:- Coinage made trade easier, supported the economy, and connected India globally.

Paper Money:

• Reason for Paper Money:- Coins became hard to carry and store in large amounts.
• Origin:-First used in China; introduced in India in the late 18th century.
• Currency:- A system of money used in a country (e.g., Rupee in India).
• Denominations:- Indian coins: 50 paisa, ₹1, ₹2, ₹5, ₹10.
• Notes:- ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100, ₹200, ₹500, ₹1000.
• Authority:- Only Reserve Bank of India (RBI) can issue paper currency in India.

New Forms of Money (Digital Money):

• Digital Transactions:- Payments made using QR codes, UPI, debit/credit cards, net banking. Example:- A fruit seller uses a QR code for customers to pay directly into his bank account.
• Intangible Money:- Money that exists electronically, not in physical form.
• Advantage:- Fast, convenient, and safe transfer of money from one account to another.

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. How does the barter system take place and what kinds of commodities were used for exchange under the system?  

Answer:- The Barter System Takes Place:

• Direct Exchange: People exchanged goods or services directly without using money.
• Double Coincidence of Wants: Both parties had to want what the other offered.
• Example: If you have an extra eraser and need a pencil, and your classmate has an extra pencil and needs an eraser — you both can exchange.

Commodities Used for Exchange in Barter System:- Cowrie shells, Salt, Tea, Tobacco, Cloth, Cattle (cows, goats, sheep, horses), Seeds

2. What were the limitations of the barter system?

 Answer:- Limitations of the Barter System:

• Double Coincidence of Wants – Both parties had to need what the other offered.
• Lack of Common Measure of Value – No standard way to compare value of goods.
• Indivisibility – Some goods (like an ox) couldn’t be divided for smaller exchanges.
• Lack of Portability – Large or heavy goods were hard to carry around.
• Lack of Durability – Perishable items (like wheat) could spoil over time.
• Difficulty in Storing Wealth – Hard to save value in the form of goods.

3.What were the salient features of ancient Indian coins?

Answer:- Salient Features of Ancient Indian Coins:

• Issued by Rulers – Kings controlled the minting and circulation of coins.
• Made of Precious Metals – Coins were made from gold, silver, copper, or their alloys.
• Called Kārṣhāpaṇas or Paṇas – Early names for Indian coins.
• Punch-Marked Symbols (Rūpas) – Coins had symbols representing deities, nature, or rulers.
• Two Sides – Obverse (head) and Reverse (tail) had different engravings.
• Included animals, trees, hills, gods, goddesses, or royal emblems.
• Facilitated Trade – Widely accepted, helped boost trade across regions and overseas.
• Regional Variety – Different kingdoms had their own coins, accepted locally and sometimes beyond.

4. How has money as a medium of exchange transformed over time? 

Answer:- Transformation of Money as a Medium of Exchange (in short points):

• Barter System – Direct exchange of goods and services without money.
• Metallic Money (Coins) – Introduction of coins made from gold, silver, copper for easier trade.
• Paper Money – Used for higher denominations; lighter and easier to carry than coins.
• Authority Control – Reserve Bank of India (RBI) now issues and regulates currency in India.
• Digital Money – Modern forms like debit/credit cards, UPI, net banking, and mobile wallets.
• Contactless Payments – QR codes and digital apps allow instant, cashless transactions.

5. What steps might have been taken in ancient times so that Indian coins could become the medium of exchange across countries? 

Answer:-

• Strong and Stable Kingdoms: Powerful rulers issued coins that were trusted and accepted beyond their own territories.
• Use of Precious Metals: Coins made from gold, silver, and copper had intrinsic value, encouraging acceptance.
• Distinctive Symbols and Quality: Clear symbols and good craftsmanship helped verify authenticity.
• Trade Relations: Active maritime and overland trade connected India with other countries, spreading Indian coins.
• Standardized Weights and Measures: Consistent coin weights made it easier for foreign traders to trust their value.
• Diplomatic Alliances: Treaties and cultural exchanges promoted the use of Indian coins abroad.
• Reputation of Indian Economy: India’s wealth and demand for foreign goods made its currency desirable.

6. Read the following lines from the Arthaśhāstra. “An annual salary of 60 paṇas could be substituted by an āḍhaka of grain per day, enough for four meals…” (One āḍhaka is equal to about 3 kg) What does this indicate about the value of one paṇa?  

The fine for failing to help a neighbour was 100 paṇas. Compare this with the annual salary. What conclusion can you draw about the human values being encouraged through this?

Answer:- Value of One Paṇa:

• An annual salary of 60 paṇas could be replaced by 1 āḍhaka (about 3 kg) of grain per day.
• This shows that one pana had significant value, enough that 60 paṇas equaled a substantial yearly grain supply.

Fine Compared to Salary:

• The fine for not helping a neighbour was 100 paṇas, which is more than the annual salary (60 paṇas).
• This means the penalty was very high, exceeding a year’s earnings.

Conclusion About Human Values:

• The high fine indicates that helping others and social responsibility were highly valued.
• The law encouraged people to assist their neighbours, promoting community welfare and cooperation.
• It reflects the importance of human values and ethics in society.

8. The RBI is the only legal source that prints and distributes paper currency in India. To prevent illegal printing of notes and their misuse, the RBI has introduced many security features. Find out what some of these measures are and discuss them in class. 

Answer:- RBI Security Features on Currency Notes:

• Watermark with Mahatma Gandhi’s image
• Security thread embedded in the note
• Latent image showing denomination when tilted
• Micro-lettering of small texts like RBI
• Raised (intaglio) printing felt by touch
• Color-changing ink on denomination numbers
• See-through register matching design on both sides
• Fluorescent elements visible under UV light

9. Interview a few of your family members and local shopkeepers, and ask them their preferences in making and receiving payments — do they prefer cash or UPI? Why?

Answer:- Most family members and local shopkeepers prefer UPI payments because it is fast, convenient, and reduces the need to carry cash. Some still like cash for small purchases or when digital access is limited. Overall, digital payments are becoming more popular due to ease and safety.

Chapter - 10 The Constitution of India — An Introduction

 Chapter - 10  The Constitution of India — An Introduction

What Is a Constitution?

• A Constitution is a formal document that defines:
• The basic principles and laws of a nation.
• The structure of the three main organs of government:
• Legislature – makes laws.
• Executive – implements laws.
• Judiciary – interprets laws.
• The roles and responsibilities of these organs.
• The checks and balances to maintain fairness, prevent misuse of power, and ensure accountability.
• The rights and duties of citizens.
• The vision, goals, and values that guide the country's future (like democracy, justice, equality, etc.).

Why Do We Need a Constitution?

• We need a constitution to:
• Ensure equality and justice for everyone.
• Promote fraternity (brotherhood) and freedom.
• Respect pluralism (diverse cultures, religions, and communities).
• Set clear rules to protect citizens' rights and limit the power of the government.
• Provide a common framework for how the country is run.
• What Most Constitutions Contain:
• Preamble – Introduction that states the ideals and goals of the nation.
• Fundamental Rights – Basic rights guaranteed to all citizens.
• Directive Principles – Guidelines for the government to make policies in the future.
• Structure of Government – Powers, functions, and relations of legislature, executive, and judiciary.
• Citizen Duties – Responsibilities expected from citizens.
• Emergency Provisions – Special powers during national emergencies.
• Amendment Process – How the constitution can be changed.
• Elections and Representation – How leaders are chosen and represent the people.

Writing the Constitution of India

• Why was it needed?
• India was preparing for independence from British rule.
• Needed a framework for self-governance in a large, diverse country.
• Important questions to address:
• What type of government?
• What rules and principles to follow?
• Who gets voting rights?
• How to resolve disputes?

Formation of the Constituent Assembly

• Formed in 1946.
• Initially had 389 members, reduced to 299 after Partition.
• Included 15 women.
• Members represented India's regions, professions, and social groups.

Development of the Constitution

• Constituent Assembly was formed on 9 December 1946.
• Members were elected by provincial legislative assemblies.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as Chairman of the Assembly.
• Work completed on 26 November 1949.
• Constitution adopted on 26 January 1950 – now celebrated as Republic Day.

Drafting Committee

• Drafting Committee prepared the first version of the Constitution.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman.
• He was a social reformer and first Law & Justice Minister of independent India.

 What Shaped and Influenced the Indian Constitution?

1. Role of the Constituent Assembly:- The Constitution was written by the Constituent Assembly, but it was influenced by multiple sources.

2. Influence of the Indian Freedom Movement

• The freedom struggle deeply influenced the Constitution.
• Many leaders of the freedom movement were also members of the Constituent Assembly.
• Their ideas and ideals were reflected in the Constitution.

Values Derived from the Freedom Struggle:

• Equality for all
• Justice for all
• Freedom
• Fraternity (brotherhood)
• Cultural heritage of India
• Constitution as a tool to achieve these values

3. Influence of Other Countries

• The Constitution included useful features from other countries’ constitutions:
• Parliamentary system from the UK
• Fundamental Rights from the USA
• Directive Principles from Ireland
• Emergency provisions from Germany, etc.

4. Influence of India’s Civilisational Heritage and Culture

• Ancient Indian values and traditions shaped many ideas:
• Diversity of views accepted
• Nature as sacred
• Importance of education and knowledge
• Respect for women
• "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" – the world is one family
• "Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah" – well-being of all beings

These cultural values are reflected in the spirit of the Constitution, even if written in modern language.

Learnings from Across the World

• Inspired by the Indian thought:
• "Ā no bhadrāḥ kratavo yantu viśwatah"
• (Let noble thoughts come to me from every side)

The Constitution of India was shaped by studying other democratic constitutions around the world:

Country                                                                                 What We Adopted

France                                                         Ideals of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

USA                                                 Concept of an Independent Judiciary, Fundamental Rights

UK                                                         Parliamentary system, Rule of Law

Ireland                                                 Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs)

Australia                         Concurrent list (shared powers between Centre & States), language of the       

                                                                                                                                       Preamble

 Features of the Indian Constitution

Separation of Powers

• Defines clear roles and responsibilities of:
• Legislature – Makes laws
• Executive – Implements laws
• Judiciary – Interprets laws

Universal Adult Franchise:- Every eligible citizen has the right to vote.

Fundamental Rights

• Basic rights guaranteed to all citizens (e.g., Right to Equality, Right to Freedom, etc.)
• Can be legally enforced in courts.

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs)

• Non-enforceable, but guiding principles for governments to achieve social and economic justice.
• Meant to build a welfare state over time.

Fundamental Duties:- Moral obligations for citizens (e.g., respecting the Constitution, promoting harmony, protecting public property, etc.)

Checks and Balances:- Ensures accountability between the organs of government through a system of balance of power.

Flexibility & Adaptability:- Amendment provisions allow the Constitution to be updated as the country evolves.                                                                                                                                      

The Constitution is a Living Document

Adaptability Over Time

• The Constitution was designed to evolve with time.
• Lawmakers understood that new challenges and needs would emerge in the future.

Amendments

• Changes to the Constitution are called amendments.
• Amendments are carefully debated in:
• Parliament
• Sometimes in state legislative assemblies
• Often involve public opinion and consultations
• Popular movements can also initiate changes.

Public Participation

• Citizens can share feedback on new laws or changes.
• Government creates platforms for public engagement.

Example of Amendment:- Part IV-A: Fundamental Duties was added in 1976 through an amendment (42nd Amendment Act).

Understanding the Preamble: The Guiding Values of the Constitution

What is the Preamble?

• The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution.
• It captures the spirit, intentions, and goals of the Constitution.

Guiding Values in the Preamble

• Justice – Social, economic, and political
• Liberty – Of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship
• Equality – Of status and opportunity
• Fraternity – Ensuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the nation
• Sovereignty, Democracy, Secularism, and Republic

Citizens' Role

• Citizens are expected to follow and promote these values.
• These principles guide government policies and citizens' actions.

NCERT QUESTIONS:

1. "The Constituent Assembly had representatives from diverse backgrounds in India.” Why do you think it was important to have a diverse set of representatives from all over India? 

Answer:- A diverse set of representatives in the Constituent Assembly was extremely important for several reasons:

• To represent all communities and regions of India.
• To include different viewpoints and experiences.
• To make the Constitution fair and balanced.
• To promote national unity and trust.
• To reflect India’s "unity in diversity".
• To create a strong, inclusive, and thoughtful Constitution.

2. Read the statements below carefully and identify which key features / values in the Constitution of India are reflected in each statement.

 a. Sheena, Rajat, and Harsh are standing in a line. They are excited to cast their first vote in the general elections.

 b. Radha, Imon, and Harpreet study in the same class in the same school.

 c. Parents must make arrangements to ensure their children’s education. 

 d. People of all castes, genders, and religions can use the village well.

Answer:- 

1. Value Reflected: Universal Adult Franchise / Democracy
2. Value Reflected: Equality
3. Value Reflected: Fundamental Duty
4. Value Reflected: Right to Equality / Social Justice / Fraternity

3. It is said that ‘All citizens in India are equal before the law’. Do you think this is a fact? If yes, why? If not, why not? Formulate your arguments.

Answer:- 

Yes, it is a fact (In principle):

• Guaranteed by the Constitution – Article 14 of the Indian Constitution states that “The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law.”
• Same laws for all – Whether rich or poor, male or female, the same laws apply to everyone.
• Equal rights – Everyone has the right to vote, access education, and seek justice.
• Protection of Fundamental Rights – Citizens can go to court if their rights are violated.

Not always a fact (In reality):

• Wealth and Influence Matter – Sometimes, wealthy or powerful people get special treatment, like faster bail or lighter punishment.
•  Social Discrimination – People still face caste, religion, or gender discrimination, especially in rural areas.
• Unequal Access to Justice – Poor or marginalized groups often can’t afford legal help or don't know their rights.
• Law enforcement is not always fair – In practice, bias and corruption can affect how laws are applied.

4. You have learnt that ‘India is the only country that provided universal adult franchise to its citizens from the beginning.’ Can you explain why India did it? 

Answer:- India provide universal adult franchise from the beginning?

• Belief in Equality:- India wanted to treat all citizens as equal, regardless of caste, class, gender, or education.
• Democracy for All:- The leaders believed true democracy means every adult should have a say in choosing the government.
• Learning from the Freedom Struggle:- The Indian freedom movement involved people from all backgrounds, so giving all adults the right to vote honored their role.
• Unity in Diversity:-Universal voting rights helped build unity in a diverse nation by including everyone in the democratic process.
• A Bold Step for Equality:- Unlike many countries that gave voting rights in stages, India wanted to set an example by trusting its people fully from the start.

5. How did the freedom struggle inspire the making of the Constitution of India? How did India’s civilisational heritage inspire some of the key features in the Constitution of India? Explain. 

Answer:-  The freedom struggle inspire the Constitution?

• It brought values like equality, justice, freedom, and democracy.
• Leaders from the struggle helped shape the Constitution.
• It promoted unity in diversity and fundamental rights.

How did India’s civilisational heritage inspire the Constitution?

• The idea of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (world is one family) inspired unity.
• Respect for knowledge, diversity, and religions shaped secularism and pluralism.
• Traditions of justice and fairness influenced Fundamental Rights and social justice.

6. Do you think we, as a society, have achieved all the ideals of the Constitution? If not, what can we each do as citizens to move our country closer to these ideals?

Answer:- Have we achieved all the ideals of the Constitution?

• Not completely.
• There are still challenges like inequality, discrimination, and poverty.

What can we do as citizens?

• Respect others’ rights and differences.
• Vote responsibly and participate in democracy.
• Educate ourselves and others about rights and duties.
• Work against social injustice and help those in need.
• Follow laws and promote equality and justice.

Chapter - 9 From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Governments

 Chapter - 9 From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Governments

What is Democracy?

• Democracy means "rule of the people." It is a system where people hold the power to make decisions through their chosen representatives. The authority in a democracy comes from the citizens of the country.
• Let’s understand democracy with a school example:
• If every student is in the committee, it becomes difficult to take decisions or implement them because too many people are involved.
• If the Head Teacher selects the committee members, most students won’t get a say, and their opinions might not be heard.
• If students of each grade choose one representative, that representative can share their class's ideas and needs. This makes sure everyone’s voice is heard in an organized way.

Functions of Government:-

Just like a student committee in a school takes care of certain responsibilities, the government plays important roles in managing the country. These responsibilities are called the functions of the government, and they are divided into three main parts:

1. Legislative Function

• This is the creation of rules and laws.
• It provides a framework for how the country should be run.
• Example: Deciding on traffic rules or school timings.

2. Executive Function

• This means putting the rules into action.
• The government works to implement policies and run the country.
• Example: Making sure schools are built, roads are maintained, or exams are conducted on time.

3. Judicial Function

• This ensures that the rules and laws are being followed by everyone.
• If someone breaks a rule, the judiciary (courts or judges) decide what to do.
• Example: If a rule is broken, like cheating in an exam, the matter is investigated and dealt with fairly.

Democracy and Representation:- In a democracy, the people choose representatives to govern on their behalf—just like how students choose representatives for their school committee. These representatives:

• Make laws (legislative),
• Run the administration (executive),
• And help ensure justice (judicial).

However, the method of choosing representatives may differ from one country to another.

What Makes Governments Different?":

🔹 1. Who decides the government?

• In democracy: People decide and are the source of power.
• In theocracy: Religious beliefs and religious leaders give authority.

🔹 2. How is the government formed?

• In democracy: Formed through elections.
• In monarchy: Formed by hereditary rule (from king/queen’s family).
• Different democracies may have different election methods.

🔹 3. Parts of the government and their roles

• Three functions: Legislative, Executive, Judicial.
• In some countries: These are separate bodies.
• In others: One body may do multiple functions.
• In democracies: Rules are in a constitution.
• In monarchies: King/Queen decides the rules.

🔹 4. Goals of the government

• Some governments aim for equality and prosperity for all (like India).
• Others may aim for the benefit of a few groups or families.

Democratic Governments around the World:-

🔹 Democracy Today

• Democracy is the most popular form of government in the modern world.
• There are different types of democratic governments, but they all share some core principles.

🔹 Fundamental Principles of Democracy

Equality

• Everyone should be treated equally.
• Equal access to education, health, and justice.

Freedom

• Citizens have the right to express opinions and make independent choices.

Representative Participation

• People elect representatives through elections.
• These representatives form the legislature.

Universal Adult Franchise

• Every adult citizen has the right to vote.

Fundamental Rights:- Examples:

• Right to equality
• Right to freedom of speech
• Right against exploitation

Independent Judiciary

• Ensures laws are followed and rights are protected.
• Even the government must follow the law.

🔹 Important Note

• These principles have evolved over time:
• India gave universal adult franchise in 1950.
• Switzerland gave women the right to vote in 1971.
• These are ideals — not always followed perfectly, but important to strive for.

Different Forms of Democratic Governments

1. Direct Democracy

• Definition: All citizens participate directly in making laws and decisions.
• Example: Practised in parts of Switzerland.
• Limitation: Not practical in large countries because involving everyone in all decisions is difficult.

2. Representative Democracy

• Definition: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
• Example: Countries like India and the USA follow this system.
• Key Feature: Representatives are accountable to the people.
• Elections: Held regularly (e.g., every 5 years in India, every 4 years in the USA).

Forms of Representative Democracy

a. Parliamentary Democracy:- The executive (ministers) is part of the legislature (parliament).

Example: India

Features:

• Prime Minister and ministers are members of the parliament.
• The council of ministers is accountable to the legislature.
• They stay in power only while they have the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
• People elect the legislature, and from these, the executive is chosen.

b. Presidential Democracy:- The executive (president) is independent of the legislature. Example: United States of America

Features:

• The president is directly elected by the people.
• The president does not need the legislature's confidence to stay in power.

 democratic governments:

Executive

• The part of the government that implements (carries out) laws.
• Different countries have different methods for choosing the executive. Examples:
• In India: Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
• In the USA: The President

Legislature

• The law-making body of the government.
• Known by different names in different countries:
• India: Parliament
• USA: Congress

 Upper House and Lower House:- Most democratic countries have two houses in the legislature (called a bicameral system):

House                     How Chosen                 Power Level                 India Example

Lower House     Direct voting by the people More powerful             Lok Sabha

Upper House     Elected or nominated                 Less powerful                     Rajya Sabha

Separation of Power

• The idea that three main organs of government:
• Legislature (makes laws)
• Executive (implements laws)
• Judiciary (interprets laws)
• work independently and do not interfere with each other’s work.
• This ensures balance and fairness in a democracy.

Common Features in All Democracies:

• Equality
• Freedom
• Universal adult franchise (everyone above a certain age has the right to vote)

A Peek into History: Early Republics

What is a Republic?:- A republic is a form of government where the head of state is elected, not inherited (not a king or queen). Leaders are chosen based on merit, not heredity.

🇮🇳 Early Republics in Ancient India

1. Vajji (or Vṛiji) Mahājanapada

• Practised collective decision-making.
• Lichchhavi clan played a key role.
• Leaders were elected, not born into power.
• Representatives met regularly to ensure the welfare of people.

2. Chola Period – Uttaramerur Inscriptions (10th century CE, Tamil Nadu)

• Described the election process for village sabhās (local governing bodies). Included:
• Sealed ballot boxes
• Qualifications and duties of members
• Strict rules (members involved in corruption were immediately removed)

Early Republics in the World

• Rome and Greece (5th–4th centuries BCE)
• Some regions had republican systems.
• Voting was limited:
• In Greece, only free men could vote.
• Women, workers, and slaves were excluded.
• In some areas, only a small, privileged group could participate in decision-making.

Other Forms of Government: 

1. Monarchy:- 

• A monarchy is a form of government where a king or queen rules.
• The position is usually hereditary, passed down through a royal family.

Monarchy in Ancient India

• In the mahājanapadas, kings ruled with guidance from sabha or samiti (councils).
• Later, as empires expanded, kings gained more power but still depended on:
• Council of ministers
• Officials
• Scholars for advice on dharma (moral and righteous rule)

Limits on the King's Power

• Rājadharma: Kings were expected to rule justly, protect people’s rights, and follow dharma.
• Their power was not absolute — they were expected to work for the welfare of all.
• However, not all kings followed these ideals—some misused their power.

Monarchies in Other Parts of the World

• In some regions, kings had total control:
• Made laws
• Enforced laws
• Decided punishments
• Some claimed their power came directly from God (divine right).

Monarchies Today

A monarchy is a form of government where a king or queen (monarch) rules. Most monarchies are hereditary, meaning the eldest son or daughter of the monarch usually becomes the next ruler.

Types of Monarchies Today

• a. Absolute Monarchy
• The monarch has full control over:
• Making laws
• Enforcing laws
• Judging legal matters
• The monarch may have advisors, but is not bound to follow their advice.
• Example: Saudi Arabia
• The king rules using Islamic law.
• A council helps him, but he has ultimate power.

b. Constitutional Monarchy:- The monarch is the head of state, but has no real power.

• Real power lies with:
• Prime Minister (executive)
• Parliament (legislature)
• The monarch performs ceremonial duties only.
• Example: United Kingdom (Britain)
• The king/queen is symbolic.
• Elected parliament makes laws, and the prime minister governs.
• It is actually a parliamentary democracy.

Theocracy

• A theocracy is a government ruled by religious laws and religious leaders.
• The country’s laws and governance follow religious principles.
• Example: Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran)
• Iran combines theocracy and democracy.
• The Supreme Leader (highest authority) is chosen by Islamic clerics and serves for life.
• There is also an elected president and parliament for daily governance.
• The goal is to build society based on Islamic norms.
• Other Theocracies:
• Afghanistan
• Vatican City

 Dictatorship

• A dictatorship is ruled by one person or a small group with absolute power.
• No limits on their power; no constitution or law restricts them.
• History has many examples of harsh dictatorships that caused suffering.
• Examples:
• Adolf Hitler (Germany, 1933–1945)
• Became dictator after passing laws to remove opposition.
• Believed in racial superiority, responsible for the Holocaust (6 million Jews killed).
• Caused World War II, leading to massive destruction and loss of life.
• Idi Amin (Uganda)
• Military dictator known for brutal killings.
• Forced many, including Indian-origin residents, to flee Uganda.

Oligarchy

• The word “oligarchy” comes from Greek:
• Olígos = few
• Árkhō = to rule or command
• It is a form of government where a small group of powerful people rule and make all the important decisions.
• This small group is often made up of:
• Wealthy families
• Influential people

Historical and Modern Examples

• In ancient Greece, some city-states were ruled by aristocratic families as oligarchies.
• In modern times, even some democracies show signs of oligarchy when:
• A small group of politicians and wealthy businesspeople hold too much influence over governance.

Why Democracy Matters:- Democracy is not the only form of government, but it is widely considered better because it respects the rights and choices of the people.

In a true democracy, people have freedom to:

• Speak their minds
• Choose what to wear
• Follow their beliefs
• Express themselves freely
• (As long as it doesn’t harm others’ rights)
• People choose their government through elections.
• The government is accountable to the people and must protect their rights and provide basic needs.
• If the government fails, citizens can vote for new representatives.
• This creates a check on government power and helps focus on the welfare of all citizens.
• India is a democracy, and many of its features are visible in daily life.
• More than half of the world’s countries follow democratic forms of government today.

Challenges in Democracy

• Even democracies face problems like:
• Corruption
• Wealth inequality
• Control of democratic institutions by a few
• Loss of independence in the judiciary
• Manipulation of information/media

What Can We Do?

• As individuals and society, it’s important to:
• Stay alert and aware
• Minimize corruption and misuse of power
• Protect democratic institutions
• Promote fairness and transparency
• Support free and fair elections

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. Write names of the various types of government that you have learnt in the chapter.

Answer:- Here are the names of the various types of government covered in the chapter:

• Direct Democracy
• Representative Democracy
• Parliamentary Democracy
• Presidential Democracy
• Republic
• Monarchy
• Absolute Monarchy
• Constitutional Monarchy
• Theocracy
• Dictatorship
• Oligarchy

2. Which type of Government does India have? And why is that called that type?

Answer:- India has parliamentry Democracy

• People elect representatives to the Parliament through regular elections.
• The executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) is part of the legislature (Parliament).
• The government is accountable to the Parliament and must have its confidence to stay in power.
• People do not directly govern but choose their representatives who make laws and run the government on their behalf.

3.  You read that an independent judiciary is present in all types of democracies. State any three reasons why you think it is important for the judiciary to be independent.

Answer:- There are three reasons why an independent judiciary is important in all democracies:

• Fair and Impartial Justice:- An independent judiciary ensures that courts make decisions based on the law, without influence or pressure from the government, politicians, or other powerful groups. This helps protect citizens’ rights fairly.
• Checks and Balances:- The judiciary acts as a check on the powers of the executive and legislature. It can stop any law or action that violates the constitution or citizens' rights, maintaining the balance of power in the government.
• Protects Fundamental Rights:- An independent judiciary defends the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals by hearing cases where rights are threatened or violated, ensuring justice is done.

4.  Do you think democratic government is better than other forms of government? Why?

Answer:- Yes, a democratic government is generally considered better than other forms of government because:

• People’s Participation: Democracy allows people to choose their leaders and have a say in how the country is run through free and fair elections.
• Protection of Rights: Democracies protect the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals, like freedom of speech, religion, and equality.
• Accountability: In a democracy, the government is accountable to the people. If it does not perform well, citizens can vote to change it.
• Rule of Law: Democracies follow laws that apply equally to everyone, including leaders, which helps prevent abuse of power.
• Freedom and Diversity: People in democracies have the freedom to express themselves and live according to their beliefs, as long as they respect others’ rights.

5. Answer:- 

Practice                                                                                     Type of Government

All citizens are treated equally before law                                     Democracy

The government refers to the religious leader for every decision     Theocracy

After the queen’s death, her son became the new king                     Monarchy

The ruler is not bound to follow any Constitution and makes 

all decisions as per his choice                                                             Dictatorship

6. Answer :-

S. No           Country                                 Type of Government

1                     Bhutan                                 Constitutional Monarchy

2                     Nepal                                         Federal Parliamentary Republic (Democracy)

3                     Bangladesh                                 Parliamentary Democracy

4                     South Africa                         Parliamentary Democracy

5                     Brazil                                         Presidential Democracy

7. What are possible hurdles in a democracy in achieving its  values and ideals? How can they be overcome?

Answer:- Possible hurdles in a democracy achieving its values and ideals:

• Corruption: When officials misuse their power for personal gain, it weakens trust and fairness.
• Wealth Disparity: Large gaps between rich and poor can lead to unequal access to opportunities and influence.
• Excessive Control by a Few: Sometimes, a small group controls important institutions, limiting true representation.
• Erosion of Judiciary Independence: If courts are influenced by politics, justice may not be fair.
• Manipulation of Information: Fake news or biased media can mislead people and harm informed decision-making.

• How to overcome these hurdles:
• Strengthen Laws and Transparency: Enforce strict anti-corruption laws and make government actions transparent.
• Promote Equal Opportunities: Work towards reducing economic inequality through social programs and fair policies.
• Encourage Citizen Participation: Educate and involve people in democratic processes to reduce concentration of power.
• Protect Judiciary Independence: Ensure courts are free from political pressure and follow the constitution.
• Support Free and Fair Media: Promote responsible journalism and critical thinking among citizens to combat misinformation.

8.  Democracy is different from monarchy and dictatorship. Explain.

Answer:- Democracy is different from monarchy and dictatorship in several key ways:

Source of Power:

• In democracy, power comes from the people. Citizens participate in choosing their leaders through elections.
• In a monarchy, power is usually inherited and held by a king or queen.
• In a dictatorship, power is held by one person or a small group who control everything, often without the consent of the people.

Rights and Freedoms:

• Democracy protects individual rights and freedoms like speech, religion, and equality.
• In a monarchy, especially absolute ones, the monarch may have unlimited power and people may have fewer freedoms.
• In a dictatorship, freedoms are often restricted, and dissent is not tolerated.

Accountability:

• Democratic governments are accountable to the people and can be changed through elections.
• Monarchs often rule for life and may not be accountable to the people.
• Dictators rule without checks or balances and are usually not accountable to anyone.

Rule of Law:

• In democracy, laws apply equally to everyone, including leaders.
• Monarchs or dictators may make and enforce laws based on their own wishes.