Chapter - 6 The Age of Reorganisation

Chapter - 6  The Age of  Reorganisation

The political and cultural shifts in India following the decline of the Maurya Empire, especially after the assassination of the last Maurya ruler by Puṣhyamitra Śhunga around 185 BCE.

Decline of the Maurya Empire:

• Aśhoka’s successors are not well-documented.
• The last Maurya emperor was overthrown by his commander-in-chief, Puṣhyamitra Śhunga.
• This marked the end of the Maurya dynasty and led to political fragmentation.

Emergence of New Kingdoms:

• The Mauryan Empire’s breakup resulted in multiple smaller kingdoms.
• Many of these were previously subordinate or tributary states.

Weakness of the Northwest:

The decline in centralized control made the northwestern regions vulnerable to foreign invasions.

‘Age of Reorganisation’:

• Scholars refer to this transitional time as an "age of reorganisation."
• New political entities emerged, and regional power struggles became common.

Methods of Expansion:

• Kingdoms used both matrimonial alliances and military conquest to expand.
• Control over border areas was especially contested for security reasons.

Cultural Growth:

• Despite political instability, there was significant progress in art, architecture, literature, and cultural exchange.

Surge of the Śhungas

Political Landscape:

• Founder: Puṣhyamitra Śhunga
• Territory: Controlled parts of north and central India, though smaller than the Mauryan Empire.

Stability:

• Defended the region against invasions.
• Initially fought but later maintained peaceful relations with the Greeks.

Ritual Authority:

• Performed the aśhvamedha yajña (horse sacrifice), a powerful Vedic ritual symbolizing sovereignty and strength.

Religious and Philosophical Developments:

• Vedic Revival: Return to Vedic rituals and traditions, emphasizing Brahmanical practices.
• Coexistence: Despite the Vedic revival, other schools like Buddhism and Jainism continued to thrive.

Sanskrit's Rise:

• Sanskrit became a preferred language for philosophy and literature.
• Yoga Sūtras by Patañjali were compiled during this time—important in yoga and meditation studies.

Art and Architecture:- Śhunga Patronage: Supported literature, art, and architecture.

Bharhut Stūpa:

• Located in Madhya Pradesh.
• Originally Mauryan, but Śhungas added intricate railings and carvings.
• These depict scenes from the Buddha’s life and are some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.

Sātavāhana dynasty, a major power in the Deccan region during the post-Mauryan period. 

Political Context:

• Possibly engaged in conflicts with the Śhungas, their northern neighbors.
• Ruled large parts of Deccan, especially present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra.
• Known also as the Andhras in some sources.

Capitals:- Had multiple capitals at different times:

• Amrāvatī
• Pratiṣhṭhāna (modern-day Paithan in Maharashtra)

Trade and Economy:- Flourishing trade both inland and overseas.

• Coin findings across India, especially on western and eastern coasts, show a wide trade network.
• Maritime trade was crucial — coins depict ships, indicating:
• Advanced shipbuilding
• Navigation skills
• Krishna-Godavari river system supported strong agriculture, ensuring food and economic stability.

International Trade:

• Connected to Roman Empire through trade.
• Exports: Spices, textiles, sandalwood, ivory, gold-plated pearls.
• Imports: Glass, perfumed ointments, and luxury items.
• Tolls and taxes on trade routes boosted royal revenue.

Culture and Contributions:- Peace and prosperity allowed for growth in:

• Literature
• Art
• Culture

The Sātavāhanas left a lasting legacy in Indian cultural and artistic traditions.

Life Under the Sātavāhanas

• Royal Traditions & Powerful Women:- Matronymic naming was common: rulers like Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi were named after their mothers.
• Gautamī Balaśhrī, his mother, was influential — she:
• Donated land to Buddhist monks.
• Commissioned inscriptions in Nāśhik, highlighting royal patronage and her own authority.
• A widow queen is recorded in Naneghat inscriptions (near Pune) as performing Vedic rituals, including:
• The aśhvamedha yajña (a rare and prestigious ritual).
• Worship of gods like Indra, Chandra, and Sūrya.
• Made lavish donations of land, livestock, coins, and more to:
• Priests, scholars, monks, guests, and workers.

Scripts and Numerals:

• Inscriptions were written in Brahmi script.
• Contain early forms of Indian numerals, some resembling modern number shapes.
• This provides evidence for the Indian origin of numerals.

Religion and Tolerance:

• The Sātavāhanas primarily worshipped Vāsudeva (Kṛiṣhṇa).
• Yet, they were religiously tolerant and patronised:
• Vedic scholars
• Jain monks
• Buddhist monks

They granted tax-free agricultural land to religious communities, promoting diverse intellectual and spiritual practices.

Decline of the Empire (3rd Century CE):- Reasons for decline:

• Weak central authority
• Gradual economic downturn
• Result: Fragmentation into smaller regional kingdoms, setting the stage for new power centers.

The Chedis of Kalinga 

Historical Context:

• Kalinga, once devastated by the Mauryan emperor Aśhoka in the famous Kalinga War, re-emerged as a major power after the Maurya Empire's decline.
• It rose under the Chedi dynasty, particularly under King Khāravela.

King Khāravela – The Monk-King:

• A devout follower of Jainism, referred to as bhikṣhu-rāja (monk-king).
• Despite his Jain beliefs, he respected all religious traditions — a hallmark of Indian religious pluralism.
• Took pride in creating a ‘council of ascetics and sages’ and supporting all religious sects and temples.

Architectural Contributions:

• Commissioned the Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar:
• Built primarily for Jain monks.
• Contain elaborate carvings, sculptures, and rock-cut chambers.
• Early and fine example of rock-cut architecture in India.

The Hāthīgumphā Inscription:

• Carved on a cave wall at Udayagiri.
• Written in Brahmi script.
• Records Khāravela’s yearly achievements, such as:
• Military victories
• Public welfare measures
• Religious patronage
• Reflects Khāravela’s broad-minded governance and ethical values.

Indian Ethos – Religious Pluralism:- Just like earlier and later rulers, Khāravela’s respect for all sects is seen as part of a continuing Indian tradition of spiritual openness and coexistence.

 Kingdoms and Life in the South

The Three Great Southern Kingdoms:- Chera, Chola, and Pāṇḍya dynasties were independent and powerful.

• They frequently competed for dominance, yet all contributed to:
• Trade
• Cultural growth
• Literary production

These kingdoms remained outside Mauryan control, as even Aśhoka's edicts only mention them—he did not conquer them.

• Khāravela claimed victory over a southern alliance, but:
• The battle location is unclear.
• There’s no evidence that he invaded deep into southern territory.

The Sangam Age:- Named after “Sangam”, meaning assembly or literary gathering (from Sanskrit sangha).

Sangam literature is: - 

• The earliest body of Tamil poetry and South India's oldest literary tradition.
• A key historical source for understanding life, politics, values, and emotions of that era.

Known for rich expression of themes like:- Love, Heroism, Generosity

The poetry is collected in anthologies and was likely composed and preserved by poet assemblies.

Why It Matters:- This period laid the foundations of Tamil culture.

• It shows a region that, while politically fragmented, was culturally united through language and literature.
• It also illustrates how emotions, values, and social life were seen as worthy subjects of poetry—revealing the refined sensibilities of the time.

 The Cholas:-

 The Cholas:-  The Chola dynasty, particularly the early reign of Karikāla Chola, and highlights their political strength, engineering achievements, and long-lasting impact on agriculture and infrastructure in South India.

Powerful and Long-Lasting Dynasty:

• Ruled parts of South India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.
• Mentioned as one of the “Three Crowned Kings” (along with the Chera and Pāṇḍya dynasties) in Sangam literature.

Karikāla Chola – A Legendary King:

• Famous for defeating a combined force of Cheras and Pāṇḍyas, solidifying Chola dominance.
• Revered as a wise and capable ruler who focused on public welfare.

Engineering Marvel – The Kallaṇai (Grand Anicut):

• A massive ancient water diversion dam across the Kāveri River, built under Karikāla’s leadership.
• Located strategically just downstream of Srirangam island.

Its purpose:

• Divert water to the Kāveri delta region.
• Expand cultivable land and improve agricultural productivity.

Impact:

• Transformed the region into the "rice bowl of the South."
• Still functional today, benefitting millions in Tamil Nadu by supporting irrigation and farming.

Legacy and Importance:

• Karikāla’s contributions show early state-led infrastructure development.
• The Grand Anicut is one of the oldest water regulation structures in the world still in use, showcasing Chola engineering brilliance.
• The Cholas laid the foundation for agricultural prosperity, which remained a pillar of Tamil economy and society for centuries.

Chera dynasty

Chera dynasty, emphasizing their cultural influence, economic strength, and active participation in international trade.

Geographical and Political Overview:

• Also called Keralaputra ("sons of Kerala").
• Ruled over western Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• Capital: Vanji (modern-day Karur, Tamil Nadu).
• One of the “Three Crowned Kings” of the Sangam Age, along with the Cholas and Pāṇḍyas.

Cultural Patronage:

• Actively promoted Tamil literature and supported Sangam poets.
• Their court was a center of artistic and intellectual activity.
• Contributed to the rich tradition of Tamil language and poetry that defines the Sangam Age.

Global Trade Network:- Maintained extensive trade ties with:

• The Roman Empire
• West Asia

Major exports included:

• Spices (especially black pepper)
• Timber
• Ivory
• Pearls

Their ports helped make the Malabar coast a major trade hub in the ancient world.

Coinage and Symbolism:

• Issued their own coins, a sign of sovereignty and economic strength.
• These coins often carried the royal emblem of the Cheras.

(While the exact emblem isn't described here, Chera symbols often include the bow and arrow or elephant motifs.)

The Pāṇḍya dynasty

The Pāṇḍya dynasty as a historically significant power in South India, noted for its economic prosperity, administrative strength, and cultural contributions.

Geography and Capital:

• Ruled parts of Tamil Nadu and nearby regions.
• Capital: Madurai, one of the most ancient cities in India.
• Their rule dates back to several centuries BCE and lasted through different phases.

International Recognition and Trade:- The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, in his work Indika, praises the Pāṇḍya kingdom as:

• Prosperous
• Well-administered
• Deeply involved in international trade

Traded with:

• Greeks
• Romans
• Other Indian kingdoms

Naval Strength:

• Known as an important naval power, enabling:
• Control over sea routes
• Expansion of trade influence
• Defense and military projection across coastal regions

Cultural Contributions:- The later Pāṇḍyas were patrons of:

• Art
• Architecture
• Literature

Their rule helped foster the economic and cultural prosperity of Tamil Nadu.

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks:- The arrival and influence of the Indo-Greeks — which marked the beginning of foreign invasions into the Indian subcontinent after the fall of the Maurya Empire.

Even Khāravela, the Chedi king, acknowledges the pearls brought from the Pāṇḍyas — a sign of their maritime wealth.

Origins and Arrival:

• The Indo-Greeks were successors to Alexander the Great’s satraps (governors) in the northwestern region.
• After Alexander’s retreat, these satraps eventually declared independence and ruled over parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• Took advantage of Mauryan decline to expand into northwestern, northern, and central India.

Cultural Integration:

• Though foreign conquerors, they assimilated deeply into Indian culture.
• Governance, art, and language became a blend of Hellenistic and Indian traditions, influencing:
• Coinage
• Architecture
• Religious practices

Heliodorus Pillar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh):- Erected by Heliodorus, an Indo-Greek ambassador to an Indian king.

The inscription:- Reveres Vāsudeva (Krishna) as the ‘God of Gods’.

Lists three immortal virtues:

• Self-restraint, Charity, and Awareness (Consciousness) — echoing Indian philosophical values.
• Reflects religious acceptance and personal devotion of a Greek official to an Indian deity.

Coinage and Deities:- Indo-Greek coins were made of gold, silver, copper, and nickel.

Greek influence:- Kings’ portraits and Greek gods like Zeus or Athena on the coins.

Indian influence:- Some coins featured Indian deities, such as:

• Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa
• Lakṣhmī, goddess of prosperity
• These coins are a primary source of information on Indo-Greek rule.

End of Indo-Greek Rule:- The Indo-Greeks were eventually overthrown by the Indo-Scythians (also known as Śhakas), marking another wave of foreign invasions.

The Emergence of the Kuṣhāṇas

The Emergence of the Kuṣhāṇas:- The Kuṣhāṇa dynasty, a key power in early Indian history that brought together a rich mix of cultures and ideas.

Origins and Extent:

• The Kuṣhāṇas came from Central Asia and entered India around the 2nd century CE.
• Their empire stretched from Central Asia to large parts of northern India.
• They controlled important trade routes, including sections of the famous Silk Route, connecting India with Asia and the West.

King Kaṇiṣhka:

• The most famous Kuṣhāṇa ruler, Kaṇiṣhka, was a powerful military leader and a great patron of art and culture.
• His statue bears an inscription calling him “The great king, king of kings, son of God.”

His coins are remarkable:

• One coin shows Kaṇiṣhka holding a spear, labeled “King of Kings.”
• The other side depicts Buddha with an inscription in Greek script.
• Another coin shows an emperor on one side and Śhiva with his bull Nandi on the other.

Cultural and Religious Harmony:

• The presence of both Buddha and Śhiva on coins indicates Kaṇiṣhka’s tolerance and patronage of multiple religions.
• This suggests that Kuṣhāṇa rulers valued peaceful coexistence and cultural diversity.
• Modern parallels could be coins or symbols featuring multiple cultural or religious icons to represent unity or diversity.

Art and Architecture:- Kuṣhāṇa art flourished with two main schools:

• Gāndhāra School (Western Punjab):
• Combined Greco-Roman and Indian styles.
• Used grey-black schist stone.
• Famous for realistic Buddha statues with flowing robes and detailed anatomy.

Mathurā School (Mathura, Uttar Pradesh):

• More traditional Indian style using red sandstone.
• Focused on Indian deities like Kubera, Lakṣhmī, Śhiva, Buddha, yakṣhas and yakṣhiṇīs.
• Produced fuller figures with smooth modeling, less Greco-Roman influence.

Broader Cultural Impact:

• This period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation despite political conflicts.
• The art and architecture reflect a dominant influence of Indian themes, especially Hindu and Buddhist.
• Sanskrit literature also flourished, with key epics like the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana being composed or consolidated around this time.

NCERT QUESTIONS:-

1. Why was the post-Maurya era also known as the era of  reorganisation?

Answer:- The post-Maurya era was called the era of reorganisation because after the decline of the Maurya Empire, many smaller kingdoms and regional powers emerged, leading to political fragmentation and new power structures across India.

2. Write a note on the Sangam literature in 150 words.

Answer:- Sangam literature is a remarkable body of ancient Tamil poetry composed between roughly the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, during what is known as the Sangam Age in South India. The term "Sangam" means an assembly or gathering, referring to the collective of poets who created these works. This literature offers deep insights into the social, cultural, and political life of the time. It covers a wide range of themes, including love, valor, ethics, and generosity, often expressed with great emotional depth and poetic skill. The poems celebrate the lives of kings, warriors, farmers, and ordinary people, reflecting the values and traditions of Tamil society. Sangam literature also highlights the natural environment, including landscapes, seasons, and wildlife, intricately woven into the emotions and actions of people. It remains a vital source for historians and scholars studying early South Indian history and culture, preserving a rich literary heritage that continues to influence Tamil literature today.

3. Which rulers mentioned in this chapter included their mother’s name in their title, and why did they do so?

Answer:- The Sātavāhana rulers included their mother’s name in their title. For example, Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī. They did this to honor their mothers, showing the influence and importance of royal women in their kingdom. It also reflected matrilineal respect and highlighted the mother’s status in the royal family.

4. Write a note of 250 words about one kingdom from this chapter that you find interesting. Explain why you chose it. After presenting your note in class, find out what kingdoms have been the most selected by your classmates.

Answer:- The Sātavāhana dynasty ruled large parts of the Deccan region in South India from around the 2nd century BCE onward. Their empire covered areas that are today parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra. One fascinating aspect of the Sātavāhanas is their strong emphasis on trade and commerce. They issued coins found across India, from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh, which often depicted ships, showing that maritime trade was important to their economy. This suggests they had advanced shipbuilding and navigation skills, connecting India to distant regions including the Roman Empire. They traded goods such as spices, textiles, sandalwood, pearls, and ivory, while importing luxury items like glass and perfumed ointments. The agricultural prosperity of the Krishna-Godavari river system supported their economy and helped the kingdom flourish.

What makes the Sātavāhana kingdom especially interesting to me is their cultural tolerance and support for different religions and philosophies. They were devoted followers of Vāsudeva (another name for Krishna) but also patronized Jaina and Buddhist monks by granting them tax-free land to pursue their studies. This shows a society that valued diversity and learning. Their inscriptions, like those in the Naneghat caves, reveal powerful queens who played significant roles in the kingdom’s religious and social life, highlighting the influence of women in governance.

I chose the Sātavāhanas because their blend of economic strength, cultural openness, and maritime connections shows how dynamic and interconnected ancient India was, much more than I had imagined before.

5.  Imagine you have the chance to create your own kingdom. What royal emblem would you choose, and why? What title would you take as the ruler? Write a note about your kingdom, including its values, rules and regulations, and some unique features.

Answer:- If I created a kingdom, my royal emblem would be a rising phoenix symbolizing strength and rebirth. I would take the title “Guardian of Harmony.” My kingdom would value peace, justice, and learning. We would protect nature, promote education, and respect everyone’s beliefs. A special feature would be a Council of Voices—people from different communities who help make decisions. My kingdom would focus on unity, fairness, and growth for all.

6.  You have read about the architectural developments of the post-Maurya era. Take an outline of the Indian subcontinent and mark the approximate locations of some of the ancient structures mentioned in this chapter.

Answer:- Ancient structures on an outline map of the Indian subcontinent based on the post-Maurya era:

• Bharhut Stūpa — Mark in Madhya Pradesh (central India).
• Nāśhik inscriptions and caves — Mark near Nāśhik, Maharashtra (western India).
• Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves — Mark near Bhubaneswar, Odisha (eastern India).
• Naneghat caves — Mark near Pune, Maharashtra (western India).
• Grand Anicut (Kallaṇai) — Mark on the Kāveri River in Tamil Nadu (southern India).
• Vanji (Chera capital) — Mark near Karur, Tamil Nadu (southern India).
• Mathura — Mark in Uttar Pradesh (northern India) for Kuṣhāṇa art.
• Gāndhāra region — Mark around northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.