Chapter - 4 New Beginnings: Cities and States

 Chapter - 4 

New Beginnings:  Cities and States

India’s First Urbanisation: The Harappan Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE)

Period: Early 2nd millennium BCE and before.

Characteristics:

• Advanced cities with planned layouts, public and private architecture, and drainage systems.
• Specialised craft production: metalsmiths, potters, weavers, etc.
• Writing system, administration, and a state structure with a ruling elite.
• Bustling urban life with markets, communities, and trade.

Decline:

• Around 1900 BCE, cities were abandoned or declined.
• People shifted to rural or village lifestyles, with urban features largely disappearing.
• This phase marked the end of widespread urban living for nearly 1000 years.
• A Long Gap: c. 1900–600 BCE
• Urban void: No significant urban centres; rural and regional cultures predominated.
• A few small towns may have existed, especially in northern India, but nothing comparable to the Harappan cities.
• India’s Second Urbanisation: Starting c. 600 BCE
• Region: Mainly the Ganga plains, some parts of the Indus basin, and other neighbouring areas.

Sources:

• Archaeological evidence: Excavations confirming existence of ancient towns and cities.
• Ancient texts: Late Vedic literature, Buddhist texts (like the Tripiṭakas), and Jain texts frequently mention urban life.

Significance:

• This marks a renewed and ongoing urban tradition in the Indian subcontinent.
• Urban centres like Varanasi, Rajagriha, and Pataliputra began to emerge.
• This phase coincided with the rise of Mahajanapadas (large kingdoms) and new religious movements.

From Janapadas to Mahājanapadas

1. Janapadas (c. 1200–700 BCE):- Origin: As regional cultures evolved in north India after the decline of the Harappan civilisation, clan-based groups (jana) began settling in defined territories called janapadas. Meaning:

Jana = people

Pada = foot or step

→ Janapada = “where the people have settled down”

Governance: Each janapada was led by a rājā (chief or king), usually hereditary, and often advised by tribal assemblies.

2. Mahājanapadas (c. 700–300 BCE):- Transition: Over time, some janapadas merged or expanded, forming larger and more powerful mahājanapadas (mahā = great).

• Number: Ancient texts often refer to 16 mahājanapadas (though the exact list may vary).
• Geographical Spread: These states stretched from:
• Gandhāra (in the northwest, modern-day Pakistan/Afghanistan)
• Anga (in the east, present-day Bihar)
• Aśhmaka (in central India near the Godavari River)

Urban Features of Mahājanapada 

• Capitals Large Fortified Cities:
• Capitals were strategically planned and heavily fortified.
• Moats surrounded them for added defence.
• Narrow gateways regulated entry and exit, enhancing security and trade control.

Continuity of Cities:- Remarkably, many of these ancient capitals — like Varanasi (Kāśī), Rajagriha (Magadha), and Ujjain (Avanti) — are still inhabited cities today, making them some of the oldest continuously living cities in the world.

Historical Importance

• The mahājanapada era marked a turning point in:
• State formation
• Urbanisation
• The emergence of kingdoms, republics, and new religious ideas (e.g., Buddhism and Jainism).
• These developments laid the foundation for later empires like the Mauryan Empire.

 Early Democratic Traditions

1. Political Participation in Janapadas

• Assemblies: sabhā and samiti
• First mentioned in the Vedas, indicating their ancient origin.
• Functioned as decision-making bodies — likely made up of clan elders.
• The rājā (king) was expected to consult these bodies, rather than rule absolutely.
• Some texts even suggest assemblies could remove an incompetent king, although evidence is limited and not definitive.

2. Mahājanapadas: Monarchies vs. Republics

• As mahājanapadas emerged, political systems diversified:
• Monarchies:
• Kingship was hereditary (passed from father to son).
• The king maintained an army, collected taxes, upheld law and order, and built fortifications.
• Powerful monarchies included Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti.
• Republics (Gaṇas or Saṅghas):
• Some mahājanapadas like Vajji (or Vṛijji) and Malla were not monarchies.
• Their governance was handled by assemblies (sabhā/samiti) with greater power.
• Decisions were made collectively, often through discussion and voting.
• Even the rājā was elected, not inherited — a radical idea for the time.

3. Significance

• These republics are often referred to by historians as “early republics” or proto-democracies.
• They are among the oldest known examples of participatory governance in the world.
• While these systems were limited (e.g., participation likely restricted to elite males), they demonstrated core democratic principles:
• Consultation
• Collective decision-making
• Accountability of leadership

Why This Matters:- This part of Indian history shows that the idea of shared governance and accountability was present thousands of years ago. It challenges the notion that ancient political systems were entirely monarchic or autocratic and places India alongside Greece as a cradle of early democratic ideas.

Innovations of the Janapada–Mahājanapada Period

1. Intellectual and Cultural Transformation

• New Schools of Thought:
• Emergence of late Vedic philosophy, Buddhism, and Jainism.
• Spread through traveling monks, nuns, scholars, and pilgrimages.

Cultural Continuity:

• These teachings influenced Indian philosophy, ethics, and education for millennia.
• Rich religious and philosophical literature was composed during this time.

Impact on Art:- Though art blossomed more fully in the later age of empires, its revival began in this era.

2. Technological Shift: Rise of Iron

• Iron Metallurgy:
• Harappans used copper and bronze.
• Now, iron began to replace bronze in tools and weapons.

Timeline:- Iron use began as early as early 2nd millennium BCE, but became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE.

Impact:

Agriculture expanded using strong iron tools (ploughs, sickles, axes).

Weapons improved: iron swords, spears, arrows, and shields were lighter and sharper than bronze ones.

Warfare:

Conflicts and alliances between mahājanapadas became more frequent.

This period saw the formation of stronger military states and eventually empires.

3. Economic Innovation: First Use of Coins

• Trade Expansion:
• Growing trade between regions made barter inefficient, prompting the need for money.
• Punch-marked Coins:
• First coins in India were made of silver, and marked by symbols punched into the surface.
• Called punch-marked coins.

Later Developments:

• Coins were also made from copper, gold, and other metals.
• Coins often issued by individual mahājanapadas, but interregional circulation was common.
• This innovation helped in the growth of markets, taxation systems, and long-distance trade — including trade with foreign lands.

Historical Importance

• This era was a turning point in Indian history, marking:
• The transition to iron-age society.
• The birth of economic and political complexity.
• The spread of religious and philosophical thought that would influence not only India, but large parts of Asia.
• The foundation for upcoming empires like the Mauryan Empire.

The Varṇa–Jāti System:- Two Key Components of Indian Social Organisation

1. Jāti (Occupational Community):- Definition: A jāti is a group or community defined by a specific occupation, usually passed down through generations.

Characteristics:

• Based on professional skills (e.g., farming, metalwork, trade, crafts).
• Often hereditary — children learned and practiced the trade of their family.
• Developed customs and traditions (especially related to marriage, food, and rituals).
• Sometimes divided into sub-jātis, each with its own practices.

2. Varṇa (Idealised Social Classification)

Origin: Concept found in Vedic texts.

The Four Varṇas:

Varṇa                                         Role in Society

Brahmins                         Scholars, priests, preservers of knowledge and ritual

Kshatriyas                         Warriors, rulers, protectors of land and society

Vaishyas                             Traders, merchants, agriculturists

Shudras                             Artisans, laborers, service providers

The varṇa system was meant to be an ideal framework for social harmony — where each group played a role contributing to the whole.

Flexibility in Early Times

• Evidence shows mobility:
• People could and did change their occupation or social role, especially due to circumstances like migration, droughts, or conflict.
• For example, some Brahmins took up trade or military service, and farmers migrated to cities to become artisans or traders.
• In early India, this system was more adaptive and practical than rigid.

Over Time: Increasing Rigidity and Inequality

• With time, the fluid boundaries hardened:
• Occupations became fixed and enforced by social norms.
• Some jātis were marginalized or excluded altogether from the varṇa system, leading to social discrimination.
• This rigidity worsened under British colonial rule, due to:
• Census classifications that formalized and froze caste identities.
• Policies that reinforced hierarchies for administrative convenience.

Scholarly Perspectives:- Scholars agree that:

• The system was more flexible in early history.
• It played a role in structuring society and economy.
• It also perpetuated inequality, especially in later periods.
• It is one among many systems that structured Indian society — others included kinship, region, language, and religion.

 Developments Elsewhere in India

Trade and Travel Routes

• Uttarapatha (“Northern Route”):
• Linked northwestern regions (like Gandhāra) with the Ganga plains and eastern India.
• Crucial for trade, military movements, and pilgrimage.
• Dakṣiṇapatha (“Southern Route”):
• Began from Kauśāmbī (a major mahājanapada capital near modern Prayagraj).
• Crossed the Vindhya mountains into southern India.
• Played a vital role in connecting northern and southern India.
• These two routes became arteries for movement of goods, ideas, armies, and religions — influencing future empires and cultural developments.

Urban Centres Beyond the Ganga Plains

• Śhiśhupalgarh (modern Sisupalgarh) in Kalinga (Odisha):
• Planned city with square layout, broad streets, and strong fortifications.
• Reflects advanced urban planning and political organisation.
• Ports on East and West Coasts:
• Became hubs for trade, both internal and maritime.
• Allowed exchange with Arabian, Persian, and Southeast Asian regions.

Southern India’s Rise (ca. 400 BCE onward)

Three Major Kingdoms:

Kingdom                     Region (Modern)                         Notable For

Cholas                             Tamil Nadu                   -              Maritime trade, military strength

Cheras                             Kerala and western Tamil Nadu    - Trade in spices and precious resources

Pāṇḍyas                             Tamil Nadu (south-central) -     Cultural patronage, pearls and overseas trade

• These kingdoms are mentioned in early Tamil literature (e.g., Sangam texts).
• Archaeology confirms urban centres and trade in this region by around 400 BCE — possibly earlier.

Southern Trade and Resources:- Southern India had abundant resources:

• Gold, spices, precious and semiprecious stones.
• These were traded across India and with foreign kingdoms (like Rome, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia).

A Unified Cultural and Economic Landscape:- By 300–200 BCE, the Indian Subcontinent had:

• Widespread trade networks.
• A flow of goods, people, religious ideas, and cultural practices.
• Connections beyond borders to Southeast and Central Asia.
• At the same time, the mahājanapadas faded, making way for new political entities and empires (like Maurya, which would soon emerge).

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kauṭilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today? 

Answer:- Kauṭilya, in the quotation at the start of the chapter, recommends that a strong kingdom needs good rulers, a well-managed administration, a loyal army, prosperous citizens, and wise advisors. These ideas focus on security, justice, economic stability, and good governance.

Though times have changed, the core principles remain similar today. Modern governments also need effective leadership, law and order, economic planning, and citizen welfare. However, unlike ancient times, modern democracies rely on elected leaders and equal rights for all, not kings and rigid hierarchies.

2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society

Answer:- According to the text, in early Vedic society, rulers were chosen by an assembly or council called the sabhā or samiti. These assemblies were made up of elders or important members of the clan, and the rājā (king) was expected to take their advice. In some cases, the assembly even had the power to remove an incompetent ruler. This suggests that the process was not entirely hereditary and had some early democratic features.

3. Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahājanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.

Answer:- As a historian studying ancient India, I would use the following types of sources to learn about the mahājanapadas:

Archaeological Sources:

• Excavated ruins of cities (like fortifications, streets, coins, pottery) help understand urban planning, trade, and daily life.
• Punch-marked coins show economic activity and trade networks.
• Weapons and tools made of iron tell us about technology and warfare.

Literary Sources:

• Vedic texts, Buddhist and Jain literature (like the Anguttara Nikaya) mention names and characteristics of the mahājanapadas.
• These give insights into political systems, religion, and social life.

Inscriptions:

• Edicts and inscriptions (especially from later periods like the Mauryan Empire) refer to earlier mahājanapadas and their rulers.
• These provide official records of events and territorial boundaries.

4. Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.

Answer:- The development of iron metallurgy was crucial for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE for several reasons:

Better Agricultural Tools:- Iron tools like ploughs and sickles made farming more efficient, allowing people to grow more food and support larger populations in cities.

Improved Weapons:- Iron weapons (swords, spears) were stronger and sharper than bronze ones, helping rulers build powerful armies to defend or expand their territories.

Clearing Forests:- Strong iron axes helped clear dense forests, opening new land for farming and settlement, leading to new towns and cities.

Growth of Trade:- Iron tools and weapons became valuable trade goods, boosting local and regional trade, which supported urban economies.

Construction:- Iron tools improved the building of roads, houses, and city walls, supporting urban infrastructure.