CBSE Class 10 Subject: Geography Chapter:- 2 Forests and Wildlife Resources

CBSE Class 10

Subject: Geography 

Chapter:- 2 Forests and Wildlife Resources 

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) – (1 Mark Each)

a) Which one of the following is not a direct cause of deforestation?

a) Mining

b) Overgrazing

c) Afforestation

d) Shifting cultivation

Answer: c) Afforestation

b) The species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas are known as:

a) Endangered species

b) Rare species

c) Extinct species

d) Vulnerable species

Answer: c) Extinct species

c) Which of the following animals is not included in the list of animals protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Act?

a) Black buck

b) Himalayan Yaks

c) Tiger

d) Elephant

Answer: b) Himalayan Yaks

d) Chipko Movement is associated with:

a) Wildlife protection

b) Water conservation

c) Forest conservation

d) Soil conservation

Answer: c) Forest conservation

e) Which of the following types of species are known to have a declining population?

a) Endemic species

b) Endangered species

c) Normal species

d) Extinct species

Answer: b) Endangered species

2 Marks Questions

• What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human beings?
• Define the term 'flora' and 'fauna'.
• What is deforestation? State two causes of deforestation.
• What is the reason of loss of cultural diversity?
• What is a wildlife sanctuary? How is it different from a national park?
• What is JFM?
• Which year project Tiger introduced?
• In which year conservaion planning added to protected plant and butterflies species?
• What is Taxus wallachiana? what is it used?

3 Marks Questions

• List any three steps taken by the Indian government to protect flora and fauna.
• What is the impact of deforestation on the environment? Explain with examples.
• What are Reserved, Protected, Unclassed, forests.
• Mention any three major threats to forest and wildlife resources.
• Colonial forest policies in India are widely blamed for significant negative impacts on forests. 

5 Marks Questions

• Why do we need to conserve our forests and wildlife? Explain any five reasons.
• Describe the role of community and local people in forest and wildlife conservation with examples.
• Explain the various categories of existing plants and animal species as per IUCN.
• Discuss the factors that have led to the decline of India's biodiversity.
• Do you think community play an important role to conserve environment?
• How will you relate environment conservation with communinty?
• What are the negative factors that cause such fearful depletion of the flora and fauna?

Assertion and Reason Type Questions

Q1.

Assertion (A): Biodiversity is declining in India.

Reason (R): There is a sharp decline in forest cover due to industrialization and urbanization.

a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

c) A is true, but R is false.

d) A is false, but R is true.

Answer: a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Q2.

Assertion (A): Sacred groves help in the conservation of rare species.

Reason (R): Sacred groves are highly protected by local communities due to religious beliefs.

a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

c) A is true, but R is false.

d) A is false, but R is true.

Answer: a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Q3.

Assertion (A): Project Tiger was launched by the government to protect the tiger population.

Reason (R): Tigers are endangered species and face the threat of extinction.

a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

c) A is true, but R is false.

d) A is false, but R is true.

Answer: a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Map Based Questions.:- Locate on map 

• Corbett National Park
• Sunderbans National Park
• Bandhavgarh National Park
• Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary
• Manas Tiger Reserve
• Periyar Tiger Reserve

Chapter - 5 The Rise of Empires

 Chapter - 5 The Rise of Empires

Historical Setting:

• The story is set in Pāṭaliputra, the capital of a powerful empire in ancient India.
• Soldiers are preparing for battle, indicating a time of political tension and military readiness.

Character Introduction:

• Ira, daughter of an ironsmith, represents the local perspective.
• Bhavisha and Dhruv seem to be time travelers or visitors from another era or region.

Fortified City and Defense:

• Pāṭaliputra is protected by a moat and a drawbridge, showing advanced military architecture.
• The city’s defense includes soldiers on horseback and elephants, highlighting the grandeur of its army.

Resourceful Geography:

• Forests and hills surrounding the city provide natural resources: timber, herbs, and elephants.
• Caves in hills are being carved for monks, hinting at a rich spiritual culture.

Urban Life and Economy:

• The city has majestic buildings, markets with international goods (like silk from China and spices from the south), and street performers, showing a vibrant economy and cultural life.
• The market serves as a hub of trade and cultural exchange.

Political Power:

• The king is portrayed as powerful and benevolent, avoiding war when possible but defending his people when needed.
• His rule stretches over a vast area, suggesting a centralized and expansive administration—an Empire, not just a kingdom.

Civic Pride:

Ira speaks with pride about her city, her family’s role in supporting the army, and her king’s rule, emphasizing citizenship and loyalty.

What is an Empire:- Empire comes from the Latin word imperium, meaning supreme power.

• An empire is a collection of smaller kingdoms or territories ruled by a powerful emperor or ruling group.
• These smaller regions often retain their local rulers, but they owe tribute and loyalty to the emperor.

Power Structure:

• The emperor rules from a central capital, which serves as the economic and administrative hub of the empire.
• Local kings or chiefs manage their territories but must recognize the emperor’s authority.

Sanskrit Terms for Emperor:

• Samrāj – lord of all or supreme ruler
• Adhirāja – overlord
• Rājādhirāja – king of kings
• Empires in Indian History:
• India has seen many empires over time.
• These empires had a cycle: rise, expansion, rule, decline, and fall.
• The most recent empire ruled less than a century ago.

Impact of Empires:- Empires played a major role in shaping India’s political, economic, social, and cultural history.

Governance Model:- In exchange for tribute and loyalty, emperors often allowed local rulers to maintain control over their regions.

Trade, Trade Routes, and Guilds

1. Economic Power and Empire Building

• Maintaining an army requires a lot of money and resources (e.g., food, weapons, animals, roads).
• Thus, a strong economy is essential for running an empire and taking care of its people.

2. Importance of Trade and Trade Routes:- Trade helps:

• Supply goods to people.
• Generate income for producers.
• Increase tax revenue for the empire.
• Controlling trade routes (both inland and overseas) is crucial for economic prosperity and political power.

3. Traded Goods in Ancient India:- Archaeological and literary sources mention:

• Textiles
• Spices
• Agricultural products
• Luxury goods (gems, handicrafts)
• Animals
• Trade extended beyond India through land and sea routes.

4. Guilds (Śreṇīs):- Guilds were organized groups of traders, artisans, moneylenders, or farmers.

• Had elected heads and ethical leaders.
• Promoted cooperation, not competition.
• Members shared resources, market information, and workforce.

5. Guild Autonomy

• Guilds had the power to make internal rules.
• Kings generally did not interfere, especially if the guilds were functioning well and trade was thriving.
• An ancient text stated that professional groups (like cultivators and artisans) could govern themselves.

6. Legacy of Guilds

• Guilds existed across India for centuries.
• Even after they formally ended, their influence on trade and business continued into modern times.
• Guilds demonstrate the self-organizing strength of Indian society.

The Rise of Magadha

1. Period of Major Change (6th–4th century BCE)

• North India experienced significant political shifts.
• Among the sixteen mahājanapadas, Magadha emerged as the most powerful, laying the foundation for India’s first empire.

2. Geographic and Resource Advantages:- Location: In the Ganga plains (modern-day south Bihar and nearby regions).

Natural resources:

• Fertile land for agriculture.
• Forests for timber.
• Elephants for warfare.
• Iron ore and other minerals from nearby hills.
• Rivers like the Ganga and Son boosted trade and transport.

3. Technological Advancements:- Iron tools transformed:

• Agriculture – iron ploughs increased food production.
• Warfare – iron weapons improved army strength.
• Surplus food allowed more specialization in arts and crafts.

4. Early Kings and Expansion

• Ajātaśhatru: An early and influential ruler who expanded Magadha’s power.
• Economic and military strength helped Magadha dominate surrounding kingdoms.

5. The Nanda Dynasty (5th century BCE)

• Mahāpadma Nanda founded the Nanda dynasty and unified many smaller kingdoms.
• Issued coins, showing strong economic control.
• Greek sources describe a large and well-equipped army under the Nandas.

6. Fall of the Nandas

• Dhana Nanda, the last Nanda ruler, became unpopular due to oppression and exploitation.
• His misrule created conditions for the rise of the Maurya Empire, which absorbed the Nanda kingdom and became one of India’s largest empires.

The Arrival of the Greeks

1. Northwestern India during Magadha’s Rise

• While Magadha was rising in the east, the northwest had smaller kingdoms.
• This region was linked to the Mediterranean world through ancient trade and travel routes.

2. King Porus and the Pauravas

• According to Greek accounts, one of the prominent rulers in this region was King Porus, who led the Pauravas.
• This refers to the time of Alexander the Great's invasion (circa 326 BCE), when he encountered Porus in battle near the Hydaspes River (modern Jhelum).

The Mighty Mauryas

1. Role of Kautilya (Chanakya):- 

• Kauṭilya, also known as Chāṇakya or Viṣṇugupta, was:
• A scholar and teacher at the famous Takṣaśilā (Taxila) University.
• Highly knowledgeable in politics, economics, and governance.
• Kauṭilya visited the court of Dhana Nanda, the last Nanda ruler.
• Seeing the misrule and corruption, he advised the king to reform.
• Dhana Nanda insulted and expelled him from the court in anger.
• Humiliated, Kauṭilya vowed to overthrow the Nanda dynasty and end its unjust rule.

2. The Rise of Chandragupta Maurya:

a). Overthrow of the Nandas

• Chandragupta Maurya rose to power by defeating the Nanda dynasty.
• He established his rule over Magadha, with Pāṭaliputra as his capital.

b). Strategic Advantages Magadha’s:

• Fertile geography
• Strong economy
• Thriving trade network
• These factors, combined with the guidance of Kauṭilya, enabled Chandragupta to build a powerful empire.

c). Expansion of the Empire

• Defeated the Greek satraps (provincial governors) left behind by Alexander the Great in the northwest.
• Expanded his empire from the northern plains to the Deccan plateau, creating a large, unified territory.

d). Diplomacy with the Greeks

• Maintained diplomatic ties with the Greek world after defeating their forces.
• Welcomed Megasthenes, a Greek historian and ambassador, to his court.
• Megasthenes wrote Indika, an important early account of life in India (though the full text is now lost, parts survive through other Greek writings).

3. Kauṭilya’s concept of a kingdom

1. Vision of Governance:- Kauṭilya, in his famous work Arthaśāstra (meaning “science of governance and economics”), laid out a detailed blueprint for running a successful kingdom (rājya).

2. Areas of Focus:- He gave practical advice in key areas such as:

• Defence
• Economics
• Administration
• Justice
• Urban planning
• Agriculture
• Public welfare

3. The Saptānga Theory:- One of Kauṭilya’s most influential ideas is the saptānga — the seven essential parts of a kingdom:

• The King (Swāmi)
• The Ministers (Amātya)
• The Territory and Population (Janapada)
• The Fortified Capital (Durga)
• The Treasury (Kośa)
• The Army (Danda)
• Allies (Mitra)

These seven parts must work together harmoniously to ensure stability, protection, prosperity, and growth of the kingdom.

4. Law, Order, and Ethics:- Kauṭilya stressed:

• Strong administration and strict law enforcement.
• Harsh punishments for corruption and misconduct.
• A focus on the well-being of the people.

The King Who Chose Peace

1. Aśhoka’s Early Reign

• Aśhoka (268–232 BCE) was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya.
• He inherited a vast empire and expanded it even further, covering:
• Most of the Indian subcontinent
• Present-day Bangladesh, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan
• All regions except the southernmost tip of India

2. The Turning Point — The Kalinga War

• Aśhoka waged a fierce war on Kalinga (modern Odisha).
• The massive destruction and loss of life deeply affected him.
• This event became a life-changing moment.

3. Aśhoka’s Transformation

• After witnessing the horrors of war, Aśhoka chose to abandon violence.
• He embraced peace, non-violence, and the teachings of the Buddha.
• He began promoting Dhamma (moral law and compassion) throughout his empire.

4. Embracing Buddhism:- After adopting the teachings of the Buddha, Aśhoka actively promoted dharma (moral conduct, compassion, and non-violence).

He sent emissaries (envoys) to spread Buddhist ideas to regions like:

• Sri Lanka
• Thailand
• Central Asia
• And other distant lands

5. Communicating with the People

• Aśhoka has been called a “great communicator” by historians.
• He issued edicts (official announcements) carved on:- Rocks, Pillars
• These edicts were placed across his empire and conveyed moral messages and advice on living a righteous life.

6. Language and Script

• The edicts were mostly in Prakrit, a widely spoken language of that time.
• They were written in the Brahmi script, considered the ancestor of most Indian scripts today.
• Called himself "Devanampiya Piyadasi" – Beloved of the Gods, Kind to All
• Promoted compassion, non-violence, and religious tolerance
• Supported public welfare – hospitals for people and animals, wells, rest houses, and tree planting
• Encouraged respect among different sects
• Early example of nature and wildlife conservation
• Focused on governance with empathy, inspired by Kauṭilya’s principles
• The Maurya Empire lasted about 50 years after Aśhoka's death.
• His successors were weaker and failed to maintain control.
• By 185 BCE, the empire had fragmented into smaller independent kingdoms.
• This marked the end of the Mauryan era and the start of a new chapter in India’s history.

 Life in the Mauryan period 

 City Life and Infrastructure

• Cities like Pāṭaliputra were bustling centres of governance and trade.
• Featured palaces, public buildings, and well-planned streets with signage.
• Communication was handled by couriers.
• Houses were made of wood, some up to two storeys tall.
• Water vessels were placed along streets to combat fires.

Economy and Prosperity

• Strong taxation system and flourishing trade.
• Treasuries were well-stocked, enabling growth and prosperity.
• Granaries ensured ample food supply, even during wars.

People and Occupations

• Merchants, artisans, and officials played key roles.
• Artisans included blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers, etc.
• Farmers remained relatively undisturbed, even during conflicts.

Clothing and Fashion

• Wore cotton clothes: a lower garment (below knee to ankle) and upper wrap.
• Some wore leather shoes with thick soles and designs to appear taller.

Art and National Symbols

• Mauryan art: Example – Aśhoka’s pillar capital at Sarnath.
• Features four lions (royal power) and dharmachakra (wheel of dharma).
• Animals on the ring: elephant, bull, horse, lion.
• Adopted as India’s national emblem.
• Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (“Truth alone triumphs”) from the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad.
• The dharmachakra also appears on the Indian national flag.

The Fragile Nature of Empires

Strengths and Benefits of Empires

• Empires unify large territories under one rule.
• Can reduce warfare among smaller kingdoms.
• Well-managed empires often bring stability and prosperity (e.g., Mauryan Empire).

Weaknesses and Reasons for Decline

• Local rulers may seek independence, especially:
• During long wars or natural calamities (droughts, floods).
• If tribute demands increase.
• If a strong emperor is followed by a weak one.
• Distant territories are harder to control and may break away (like in Alexander’s case).
• Economic crises weaken the empire’s foundations.

The Empire Paradox

• Built by war, often maintained through force and repression.
• Despite benefits, they remain fragile and unstable over time.
• Empires may look mighty, but internal pressures often lead to their fall.

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. What are the features of an empire, and how is it different  from a kingdom? Explain.

Answers:- Features of an Empire

• Large Territory: An empire usually controls many regions or kingdoms, often spread over vast areas.
• Supreme Ruler: Ruled by an emperor or empress who has authority over several smaller kings or chiefs.
• Tributary System: Local rulers keep their positions but must pay tribute and obey the emperor.
• Strong Administration: Empires have complex systems for governance, law, taxation, and military.
• Cultural and Economic Influence: Empires often influence trade, language, religion, and art over large regions.
• Military Power: Empires grow by conquering other lands and maintain control through strong armies.

Features of a Kingdom

• Smaller Territory: A kingdom usually covers a limited region or a single cultural area.
• Single Ruler: Ruled by a king or queen who governs directly over their own land and people.
• Independent Control: The king’s authority doesn't extend beyond their own kingdom.
• Simpler Structure: Administration and governance are simpler than in an empire.
• Local Focus: Trade, culture, and power are mostly focused within the kingdom.

2. What are some important factors for the transition from kingdoms to empires?

Answers:- Factors for the Transition from Kingdoms to Empires

Military Strength and Conquest

A powerful army helps a kingdom conquer neighboring territories.

For example, Chandragupta Maurya expanded Magadha by defeating other kingdoms.

Strong and Ambitious Leadership

A visionary ruler with the ambition to expand can unite many regions.

Leaders like Chandragupta Maurya and Aśhoka played a major role in forming the Mauryan Empire.

Economic Prosperity

Surplus agricultural production and flourishing trade give the resources needed for expansion.

A strong economy helps maintain armies and administration.

Geographical Advantage

Control over rivers, fertile land, and trade routes allows faster growth and better connectivity.

Magadha’s location in the Ganga plains is a good example.

Efficient Administration and Governance

As more regions are added, a well-organized system of officials and tax collection is necessary.

Think of Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra guiding how to run such a large state.

Political Alliances and Diplomacy

Sometimes, smaller kingdoms are added through treaties or alliances rather than war.

Marriages or mutual agreements also helped grow empires.

Use of Technology and Innovation

Iron tools and weapons improved farming and warfare.

Better roads and communication systems helped control large areas.

Ideology and Unifying Culture

Shared religion, language, or legal systems can unify different regions under one rule.

Aśhoka’s promotion of dhamma helped bind his diverse empire.

3. Alexander is considered an important king in the history of the world —why do you think that is so?

Answers:- Alexander is considered important because he built one of the largest empires in history by the age of 30, spreading Greek culture, ideas, and trade across three continents — Europe, Asia, and Africa. His conquests connected the East and West and had a lasting impact on world history.

4. In early Indian history, the Mauryas are considered important. State your reasons.

Answers:-   The Mauryas are considered important in early Indian history because they established the first large empire that unified most of the Indian subcontinent. Under leaders like Chandragupta Maurya and Aśhoka, they created a strong administration, promoted trade, built infrastructure, and spread Buddhism both within and outside India.

5. What were some of Kauṭilya’s key ideas? Which ones of these can you observe even today in the world around us?

Answers:- Kauṭilya’s key ideas included strong governance with law and order, a well-organized administration, economic planning, welfare of the people, and using both war and alliances to protect the kingdom. Today, we see these ideas in modern governments that maintain law, run efficient administrations, promote economic growth, and focus on public welfare and diplomacy.

6. What were the unusual things about Aśhoka and his empire? What of that has continued to influence India and why? Write your opinion in about 250 words.

Answer:- Aśhoka and his empire were unusual because he chose peace and non-violence after witnessing the horrors of war, especially the Kalinga battle. Unlike many rulers who focused only on conquest, Aśhoka embraced Buddhist teachings and worked to spread them widely. He promoted kindness, tolerance, and welfare for all living beings, including animals, which was rare for his time. His edicts, carved on rocks and pillars across the empire, communicated his messages directly to the people, showing his commitment to good governance and public welfare.

Aśhoka also supported religious harmony by encouraging different sects to learn from each other, promoting social unity. He improved infrastructure by building rest houses, wells, and planting trees along roads, showing concern for travelers and the environment.

The influence of Aśhoka continues in India today. His edicts inspired the national emblem—the four lions on top of the pillar at Sarnath—and the dharmachakra (wheel of law) in the Indian flag. These symbols represent strength, peace, and justice. His idea of ruling with compassion and focusing on the welfare of all subjects still resonates in modern Indian governance. The emphasis on religious tolerance and respect for nature are values India continues to cherish. Aśhoka’s legacy reminds us that true power lies not just in military strength but in kindness, justice, and unity. This makes him one of the most respected rulers in Indian history.

7. -

Answers. 7 -Yes, Aśhoka was tolerant towards other religious beliefs and schools of thought. The edict shows that he appointed officers to take care of different religious groups like Buddhists, Brahmans, Jains, and others, indicating his respect and support for religious diversity and harmony.

9. Suppose you had to travel from Kauśhāmbī to Kāveripattanam in the 3rd century BCE. How would you undertake this journey, and how long would you expect it to take, with reasonable halts on the way?

Answers. 9 In the 3rd century BCE, traveling from Kauśhāmbī to Kāveripattanam would involve walking, riding horses or bullock carts, and possibly traveling by river or sea. The journey would take about 4 to 6 weeks with regular stops for rest and supplies.

Coal Mines Class - 10 Practice Map

Coal Mines to Include:

Number	Coal Mine	State
1	Jharia	Jharkhand
2	Raniganj	West Bengal
3	Bokaro	Jharkhand
4	Korba	Chhattisgarh
5	Talcher	Odisha
6	Singrauli	Madhya Pradesh
7	Neyveli	Tamil Nadu
8	Makum	Assam

Click here to find the location of coal mines in India Coal Mines Class - 10 Practice Map

You can download the latest NCERT Class 7 Social Science textbooks in PDF format from the official NCERT website.

 You can download the latest NCERT Class 7 Social Science textbooks in PDF format from the official NCERT website.

You can download the latest NCERT Class 7 Social Science textbooks in PDF format from the official NCERT website.

Chapter - 4 New Beginnings: Cities and States

 Chapter - 4 

New Beginnings:  Cities and States

India’s First Urbanisation: The Harappan Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE)

Period: Early 2nd millennium BCE and before.

Characteristics:

• Advanced cities with planned layouts, public and private architecture, and drainage systems.
• Specialised craft production: metalsmiths, potters, weavers, etc.
• Writing system, administration, and a state structure with a ruling elite.
• Bustling urban life with markets, communities, and trade.

Decline:

• Around 1900 BCE, cities were abandoned or declined.
• People shifted to rural or village lifestyles, with urban features largely disappearing.
• This phase marked the end of widespread urban living for nearly 1000 years.
• A Long Gap: c. 1900–600 BCE
• Urban void: No significant urban centres; rural and regional cultures predominated.
• A few small towns may have existed, especially in northern India, but nothing comparable to the Harappan cities.
• India’s Second Urbanisation: Starting c. 600 BCE
• Region: Mainly the Ganga plains, some parts of the Indus basin, and other neighbouring areas.

Sources:

• Archaeological evidence: Excavations confirming existence of ancient towns and cities.
• Ancient texts: Late Vedic literature, Buddhist texts (like the Tripiṭakas), and Jain texts frequently mention urban life.

Significance:

• This marks a renewed and ongoing urban tradition in the Indian subcontinent.
• Urban centres like Varanasi, Rajagriha, and Pataliputra began to emerge.
• This phase coincided with the rise of Mahajanapadas (large kingdoms) and new religious movements.

From Janapadas to Mahājanapadas

1. Janapadas (c. 1200–700 BCE):- Origin: As regional cultures evolved in north India after the decline of the Harappan civilisation, clan-based groups (jana) began settling in defined territories called janapadas. Meaning:

Jana = people

Pada = foot or step

→ Janapada = “where the people have settled down”

Governance: Each janapada was led by a rājā (chief or king), usually hereditary, and often advised by tribal assemblies.

2. Mahājanapadas (c. 700–300 BCE):- Transition: Over time, some janapadas merged or expanded, forming larger and more powerful mahājanapadas (mahā = great).

• Number: Ancient texts often refer to 16 mahājanapadas (though the exact list may vary).
• Geographical Spread: These states stretched from:
• Gandhāra (in the northwest, modern-day Pakistan/Afghanistan)
• Anga (in the east, present-day Bihar)
• Aśhmaka (in central India near the Godavari River)

Urban Features of Mahājanapada 

• Capitals Large Fortified Cities:
• Capitals were strategically planned and heavily fortified.
• Moats surrounded them for added defence.
• Narrow gateways regulated entry and exit, enhancing security and trade control.

Continuity of Cities:- Remarkably, many of these ancient capitals — like Varanasi (Kāśī), Rajagriha (Magadha), and Ujjain (Avanti) — are still inhabited cities today, making them some of the oldest continuously living cities in the world.

Historical Importance

• The mahājanapada era marked a turning point in:
• State formation
• Urbanisation
• The emergence of kingdoms, republics, and new religious ideas (e.g., Buddhism and Jainism).
• These developments laid the foundation for later empires like the Mauryan Empire.

 Early Democratic Traditions

1. Political Participation in Janapadas

• Assemblies: sabhā and samiti
• First mentioned in the Vedas, indicating their ancient origin.
• Functioned as decision-making bodies — likely made up of clan elders.
• The rājā (king) was expected to consult these bodies, rather than rule absolutely.
• Some texts even suggest assemblies could remove an incompetent king, although evidence is limited and not definitive.

2. Mahājanapadas: Monarchies vs. Republics

• As mahājanapadas emerged, political systems diversified:
• Monarchies:
• Kingship was hereditary (passed from father to son).
• The king maintained an army, collected taxes, upheld law and order, and built fortifications.
• Powerful monarchies included Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti.
• Republics (Gaṇas or Saṅghas):
• Some mahājanapadas like Vajji (or Vṛijji) and Malla were not monarchies.
• Their governance was handled by assemblies (sabhā/samiti) with greater power.
• Decisions were made collectively, often through discussion and voting.
• Even the rājā was elected, not inherited — a radical idea for the time.

3. Significance

• These republics are often referred to by historians as “early republics” or proto-democracies.
• They are among the oldest known examples of participatory governance in the world.
• While these systems were limited (e.g., participation likely restricted to elite males), they demonstrated core democratic principles:
• Consultation
• Collective decision-making
• Accountability of leadership

Why This Matters:- This part of Indian history shows that the idea of shared governance and accountability was present thousands of years ago. It challenges the notion that ancient political systems were entirely monarchic or autocratic and places India alongside Greece as a cradle of early democratic ideas.

Innovations of the Janapada–Mahājanapada Period

1. Intellectual and Cultural Transformation

• New Schools of Thought:
• Emergence of late Vedic philosophy, Buddhism, and Jainism.
• Spread through traveling monks, nuns, scholars, and pilgrimages.

Cultural Continuity:

• These teachings influenced Indian philosophy, ethics, and education for millennia.
• Rich religious and philosophical literature was composed during this time.

Impact on Art:- Though art blossomed more fully in the later age of empires, its revival began in this era.

2. Technological Shift: Rise of Iron

• Iron Metallurgy:
• Harappans used copper and bronze.
• Now, iron began to replace bronze in tools and weapons.

Timeline:- Iron use began as early as early 2nd millennium BCE, but became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE.

Impact:

Agriculture expanded using strong iron tools (ploughs, sickles, axes).

Weapons improved: iron swords, spears, arrows, and shields were lighter and sharper than bronze ones.

Warfare:

Conflicts and alliances between mahājanapadas became more frequent.

This period saw the formation of stronger military states and eventually empires.

3. Economic Innovation: First Use of Coins

• Trade Expansion:
• Growing trade between regions made barter inefficient, prompting the need for money.
• Punch-marked Coins:
• First coins in India were made of silver, and marked by symbols punched into the surface.
• Called punch-marked coins.

Later Developments:

• Coins were also made from copper, gold, and other metals.
• Coins often issued by individual mahājanapadas, but interregional circulation was common.
• This innovation helped in the growth of markets, taxation systems, and long-distance trade — including trade with foreign lands.

Historical Importance

• This era was a turning point in Indian history, marking:
• The transition to iron-age society.
• The birth of economic and political complexity.
• The spread of religious and philosophical thought that would influence not only India, but large parts of Asia.
• The foundation for upcoming empires like the Mauryan Empire.

The Varṇa–Jāti System:- Two Key Components of Indian Social Organisation

1. Jāti (Occupational Community):- Definition: A jāti is a group or community defined by a specific occupation, usually passed down through generations.

Characteristics:

• Based on professional skills (e.g., farming, metalwork, trade, crafts).
• Often hereditary — children learned and practiced the trade of their family.
• Developed customs and traditions (especially related to marriage, food, and rituals).
• Sometimes divided into sub-jātis, each with its own practices.

2. Varṇa (Idealised Social Classification)

Origin: Concept found in Vedic texts.

The Four Varṇas:

Varṇa                                         Role in Society

Brahmins                         Scholars, priests, preservers of knowledge and ritual

Kshatriyas                         Warriors, rulers, protectors of land and society

Vaishyas                             Traders, merchants, agriculturists

Shudras                             Artisans, laborers, service providers

The varṇa system was meant to be an ideal framework for social harmony — where each group played a role contributing to the whole.

Flexibility in Early Times

• Evidence shows mobility:
• People could and did change their occupation or social role, especially due to circumstances like migration, droughts, or conflict.
• For example, some Brahmins took up trade or military service, and farmers migrated to cities to become artisans or traders.
• In early India, this system was more adaptive and practical than rigid.

Over Time: Increasing Rigidity and Inequality

• With time, the fluid boundaries hardened:
• Occupations became fixed and enforced by social norms.
• Some jātis were marginalized or excluded altogether from the varṇa system, leading to social discrimination.
• This rigidity worsened under British colonial rule, due to:
• Census classifications that formalized and froze caste identities.
• Policies that reinforced hierarchies for administrative convenience.

Scholarly Perspectives:- Scholars agree that:

• The system was more flexible in early history.
• It played a role in structuring society and economy.
• It also perpetuated inequality, especially in later periods.
• It is one among many systems that structured Indian society — others included kinship, region, language, and religion.

 Developments Elsewhere in India

Trade and Travel Routes

• Uttarapatha (“Northern Route”):
• Linked northwestern regions (like Gandhāra) with the Ganga plains and eastern India.
• Crucial for trade, military movements, and pilgrimage.
• Dakṣiṇapatha (“Southern Route”):
• Began from Kauśāmbī (a major mahājanapada capital near modern Prayagraj).
• Crossed the Vindhya mountains into southern India.
• Played a vital role in connecting northern and southern India.
• These two routes became arteries for movement of goods, ideas, armies, and religions — influencing future empires and cultural developments.

Urban Centres Beyond the Ganga Plains

• Śhiśhupalgarh (modern Sisupalgarh) in Kalinga (Odisha):
• Planned city with square layout, broad streets, and strong fortifications.
• Reflects advanced urban planning and political organisation.
• Ports on East and West Coasts:
• Became hubs for trade, both internal and maritime.
• Allowed exchange with Arabian, Persian, and Southeast Asian regions.

Southern India’s Rise (ca. 400 BCE onward)

Three Major Kingdoms:

Kingdom                     Region (Modern)                         Notable For

Cholas                             Tamil Nadu                   -              Maritime trade, military strength

Cheras                             Kerala and western Tamil Nadu    - Trade in spices and precious resources

Pāṇḍyas                             Tamil Nadu (south-central) -     Cultural patronage, pearls and overseas trade

• These kingdoms are mentioned in early Tamil literature (e.g., Sangam texts).
• Archaeology confirms urban centres and trade in this region by around 400 BCE — possibly earlier.

Southern Trade and Resources:- Southern India had abundant resources:

• Gold, spices, precious and semiprecious stones.
• These were traded across India and with foreign kingdoms (like Rome, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia).

A Unified Cultural and Economic Landscape:- By 300–200 BCE, the Indian Subcontinent had:

• Widespread trade networks.
• A flow of goods, people, religious ideas, and cultural practices.
• Connections beyond borders to Southeast and Central Asia.
• At the same time, the mahājanapadas faded, making way for new political entities and empires (like Maurya, which would soon emerge).

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kauṭilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today? 

Answer:- Kauṭilya, in the quotation at the start of the chapter, recommends that a strong kingdom needs good rulers, a well-managed administration, a loyal army, prosperous citizens, and wise advisors. These ideas focus on security, justice, economic stability, and good governance.

Though times have changed, the core principles remain similar today. Modern governments also need effective leadership, law and order, economic planning, and citizen welfare. However, unlike ancient times, modern democracies rely on elected leaders and equal rights for all, not kings and rigid hierarchies.

2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society

Answer:- According to the text, in early Vedic society, rulers were chosen by an assembly or council called the sabhā or samiti. These assemblies were made up of elders or important members of the clan, and the rājā (king) was expected to take their advice. In some cases, the assembly even had the power to remove an incompetent ruler. This suggests that the process was not entirely hereditary and had some early democratic features.

3. Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahājanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.

Answer:- As a historian studying ancient India, I would use the following types of sources to learn about the mahājanapadas:

Archaeological Sources:

• Excavated ruins of cities (like fortifications, streets, coins, pottery) help understand urban planning, trade, and daily life.
• Punch-marked coins show economic activity and trade networks.
• Weapons and tools made of iron tell us about technology and warfare.

Literary Sources:

• Vedic texts, Buddhist and Jain literature (like the Anguttara Nikaya) mention names and characteristics of the mahājanapadas.
• These give insights into political systems, religion, and social life.

Inscriptions:

• Edicts and inscriptions (especially from later periods like the Mauryan Empire) refer to earlier mahājanapadas and their rulers.
• These provide official records of events and territorial boundaries.

4. Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.

Answer:- The development of iron metallurgy was crucial for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE for several reasons:

Better Agricultural Tools:- Iron tools like ploughs and sickles made farming more efficient, allowing people to grow more food and support larger populations in cities.

Improved Weapons:- Iron weapons (swords, spears) were stronger and sharper than bronze ones, helping rulers build powerful armies to defend or expand their territories.

Clearing Forests:- Strong iron axes helped clear dense forests, opening new land for farming and settlement, leading to new towns and cities.

Growth of Trade:- Iron tools and weapons became valuable trade goods, boosting local and regional trade, which supported urban economies.

Construction:- Iron tools improved the building of roads, houses, and city walls, supporting urban infrastructure.

Chapter- 3 Climates of India

 Chapter- 3 Climates of India

1. Difference Between Weather and Climate

• Weather is the daily or hourly condition of the atmosphere—such as rain, sunshine, or wind—and changes frequently.
• Climate is the average pattern of weather in a region over a long period (decades or more).

2. What Are Seasons?

• Seasons are caused by the Earth's movement around the Sun.
• Each season lasts a few months and recurs every year.
• Common seasons include spring, summer, autumn, winter, and in India, the monsoon (rainy season).

3. Relationship Between Weather, Climate, and Seasons

• Seasons influence weather—for example, summer is hot and dry, while the monsoon brings rain.
• Climate influences seasons—regions with different climates experience different patterns of seasons.

4. Seasons and Life on Earth

• Human, plant, and animal life adapt to the changing seasons:
• Crops and food habits vary with the season.
• Clothes change with the temperature.
• Plants bloom or shed leaves, and animals may grow thicker fur in winter.

5. Climate Change

• Normally, climate stays stable over long periods.
• But in recent decades, scientists have noticed climate changes around the world.
• Many of these changes are caused by human activities (like pollution, deforestation, and burning fossil fuels).

6. Recap: Weather, Seasons, and Climate

• Weather: What we experience daily—hot, cold, rainy, windy, etc.
• Seasons: Repeat every year. Each season has different weather patterns.
• Climate: The average weather pattern in a region over many years.

Types of Climates in India:- India’s climate is as diverse as its people and landscapes. Here's how it varies across different regions:

1. Alpine Climate – Northern Himalayas

• Winters: Very cold and snowy
• Summers: Cool
• Clothing: Thick woollens needed
• Example: Upper Himalayas
• Similar to the Alps in Europe

2. Temperate Climate – Lower Himalayas and Hilly Areas

• Winters: Moderately cold
• Summers: Pleasant, not too hot
• Popular for hill stations like Shimla or Darjeeling

3. Subtropical Climate – Northern Plains

• Summers: Very hot
• Winters: Cold
• Crops: Ideal for growing wheat

4. Arid Climate – Western India (Thar Desert)

• Days: Extremely hot
• Nights: Cool
• Rainfall: Very little
• People use innovative methods to save water

5. Tropical Wet Climate – Western Coastal Strip

• Rainfall: Heavy during monsoon
• Climate: Hot and humid
• Crops: Rice, spices thrive here

6. Semi-Arid Climate – Central Deccan Plateau

• Summers: Hot
• Winters: Mild
• Rainfall: Moderate during rainy season

7. Tropical Climate – Eastern India & Southern Peninsula

• Winter: Mild
• Rainfall: Wet and dry periods based on monsoon winds
• Very dependent on monsoon for farming and water

Factors Determining the Climate

Different places have different climates because of various factors. Some of these act on a global scale, while others are local. 

a) Latitude – Distance from the Equator:- Latitude refers to how far a place is from the Equator (the imaginary line around the middle of the Earth).

How Sunlight Affects Temperature:

Near the Equator (Low Latitudes):

• Sun’s rays fall directly (almost vertically).
• Energy is concentrated on a small area.
• Result: Hotter climate.
• Examples in India: Kanniyakumari, Nicobar Islands (hot most of the year).

Near the Poles (High Latitudes):

• Sun’s rays are slanted (oblique).
• Energy is spread out over a large area.
• Rays also pass through more of the atmosphere, losing more energy.
• Result: Colder climate.
• Example in India: Srinagar (cooler temperatures).

b) Altitude – Height Above Sea Level:- Have you noticed that hill stations like Ooty, Shimla, or Darjeeling are much cooler than the plains? That’s because they are at a higher altitude.

How Does Altitude Affect Temperature?

• As you go higher up, the temperature gets cooler. Here’s why:
• Lower Air Pressure at Higher Altitudes
• As you go up, the air becomes thinner (less dense).
• Thin air holds less heat, so it feels cooler.
• Heat Comes from the Earth's Surface
• The Sun heats the Earth’s surface, and the surface warms the air.
• The higher you go, the farther you are from the warm surface, so it's colder.

Example: The Himalayas:- Many Himalayan peaks are so high that the temperature stays below freezing, keeping them covered in snow all year.

Examples of Cool Hill Stations in India:

• South: Ooty, Munnar, Madikeri, Mahabaleshwar
• North: Shimla, Nainital, Darjeeling, Tawang
• Northeast: Shillong

c) Proximity to the Sea – Nearness to Water Bodies:- Places that are close to the sea have milder climates. This means:

• Summers aren’t too hot
• Winters aren’t too cold
• This happens because the sea acts like a temperature controller, or a moderator.

Why Does This Happen?:- Water heats up and cools down more slowly than land. So, during:

• Summer: The sea absorbs heat and keeps the land cooler.
• Winter: The sea slowly releases stored heat, keeping the land warmer.
• As a result, coastal areas stay more comfortable all year round.

Example: Mumbai vs. Nagpur

Both cities are at similar latitudes, but:

Feature                     Mumbai (Near the Sea)                     Nagpur (Inland)

Summer                             ~32°C                                                 ~44°C

Winter                             ~18°C                                                 ~10°C

Temperature Range                14°C                                                    34°C

Finally we can say Mumbai has a smaller range in temperature and a more moderate climate, while Nagpur experiences extreme temperatures.

d) Winds – Moving Air that Affects Climate:- Winds carry air from one region to another. Depending on where the wind comes from, it can bring heat, cold, dryness, or moisture.

How Do Winds Influence Climate?

• Hot and Dry Winds
• Example: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
• Winds come from the west, traveling over Arabian and Afghan deserts.
• These winds are dry and hot, causing heat waves in summer.

Cold Winds

• In winter, cold winds blow down from the Himalayas.
• These winds bring cold waves to the Himalayan foothills and nearby areas.
• Moist Winds (From the Sea)
• Winds that come from the sea carry moisture.
• These can lead to rainfall when they move over land.
• An important example is the monsoon winds, which we’ll study next.

Winds Also Affect:

• Temperature (can warm or cool a place)
• Humidity (amount of moisture in the air)
• Precipitation (rain or snow)

e) Topography – Physical Features of the Land:- Topography means the shape and features of the land, including mountains, valleys, slopes, coasts, and plains. These physical features have a major influence on the climate of a region.

How Does Topography Affect Climate?

• Mountains as Barriers
• Example: The Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges
• These high mountain ranges block cold winds from Central Asia, helping keep northern India warmer in winter than it would otherwise be.

Flat Land Offers No Protection

• Example: The Thar Desert
• Its flat, open land means there’s nothing to block hot, dry winds, making it extremely hot and arid.
• The Western Ghats also play a role by blocking moist monsoon winds, causing heavy rainfall on one side and dry conditions on the other (this will be explained in the next section).

The Monsoons – Monsoons are seasonal winds that bring heavy rainfall in summer and dry conditions in winter. They are vital for agriculture, rivers, drinking water, and life in general across India.

What Does the Word 'Monsoon' Mean?

• Comes from the Arabic word mausim, meaning “season.”
• Refers to seasonal winds in the Indian Ocean region, affecting countries like India, Australia, and parts of Africa and Southeast Asia.

How Monsoons Work:- Land heats and cools faster than the sea.

Summer Monsoon (Southwest Monsoon)

Feature                                                                     Description

Direction                                             Winds blow from sea to land (southwest direction)

What happens                                     Land heats up → creates low pressure

Wind movement                             Moist winds are pulled in from the ocean

Result                                     Heavy rainfall across India (especially on the west coast and northeast)

Timing                                     Starts in early June from the south, spreads across India by mid-July

The Western Ghats play a big role here:

• Their western slopes get heavy rain.
• Eastern side (Deccan Plateau) gets less rain — this is called the rain shadow area.

Winter Monsoon (Northeast Monsoon)

Feature                                                             Description

Direction                                 Winds blow from land to sea (northeast direction)

What happens                          Land cools faster → becomes high pressure

Wind movement                  Winds flow out from land to sea

Special case                           Some winds pass over Bay of Bengal, pick up moisture, and bring rain to                                                    east and southeast India (like Tamil Nadu)

Timing                                    From October to December

Climate and Our Lives:- Climate doesn’t just affect the weather — it affects everything we do. From culture and festivals to farming, jobs, water, and even the economy, our lives are closely connected with the climate.

1. Climate and Culture

• Many of India’s festivals are linked to seasons and agriculture.
• Example: Pongal, Baisakhi, Onam, and Makar Sankranti are all linked to harvest seasons.
• The changing seasons influence what we wear, eat, and even how we celebrate.

2. Climate and Economy

• Agriculture depends heavily on the monsoon.
• If the monsoon fails (i.e., there’s very little rainfall), it causes many problems:
• Poor crop growth
• Water scarcity – especially hard on women, who often walk long distances to fetch water
• Migration – farm workers may move to cities to find work
• Higher food prices – this leads to inflation (everything becomes more expensive)

3. Impact on Industry

• Many industries need predictable weather and plenty of water.
• When the climate is unpredictable, industries can suffer, affecting jobs and production.

4. Climate Disasters

• Floods, droughts, cyclones, and heatwaves can all disrupt lives and damage homes, farms, and businesses.
• These events put extra pressure on people and the economy — especially in poorer regions.

a. Cyclones

• Cyclones are powerful storms with very strong winds and heavy rain.
• They form mostly over the warm waters of the ocean.
• The Indian coastline, especially the eastern coast, faces many cyclones every year.

How Are Cyclones Formed?

• Sometimes, the air pressure over the sea drops below the surrounding areas, creating a low-pressure system.
• Air from surrounding areas rushes in to fill this low-pressure zone.
• This incoming air carries moisture, which forms clouds and rain.
• When the system grows stronger, winds spin and gather speed, forming a cyclone.
• At the center of the cyclone is the ‘eye’, a calm and cloudless area surrounded by violent winds.

Effects of Cyclones

• Loss of human and animal lives.
• Damage to houses, buildings, and infrastructure.
• Uprooting of trees.
• Soil erosion leading to land degradation.
• Disruption of local economies and agriculture.

Monitoring Cyclones:- The India Meteorological Department (IMD) tracks cyclones carefully.

• They provide warnings about:
• Where a cyclone is forming.
• How it’s developing.
• When and where it will make landfall.
• This helps people prepare and reduces loss.

b. Floods:- A flood happens when water overflows into areas that are usually dry.

Causes include:

• Heavy rainfall creating lots of runoff water that the land can’t soak up.
• Rivers, lakes, or reservoirs getting so full that their banks overflow or break.

When and Where Do Floods Occur?

• Floods are very common during the monsoon season.
• Some states in India that are especially prone to floods include:
• Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam.
• In the Himalayan regions, floods can happen due to glacial bursts.

What Is a Glacial Burst?

• Glacial lakes form behind natural barriers of rocks and ice.
• These lakes collect water from melting glaciers.
• If glaciers melt too fast or heavy rainfall occurs, the water pressure increases.
• Eventually, the barrier breaks, releasing huge amounts of water suddenly.
• This is called a glacial burst and causes serious damage downstream.

Urban Flooding

• Cities also face floods when:
• Drainage systems can’t handle heavy rain.
• Construction blocks natural water flow.
• Surfaces like concrete or asphalt don’t absorb water, causing runoff to pool.

Effects of Floods

• Damage to homes and property.
• Disruption of daily life and transportation.
• Loss of crops and livestock.
• Spread of waterborne diseases.

c. Landslides:-  A landslide is the sudden fall or slide of rock, soil, or debris down a slope.

Often triggered by:- Heavy rain, Earthquakes, Volcanic activity

Where Do Landslides Happen?:- Common in hilly and mountainous regions such as:

• Himachal Pradesh
• Uttarakhand
• Sikkim
• Arunachal Pradesh
• Western Ghats
• Usually occur during the monsoon season due to heavy rainfall.

Causes of Increased Landslides

• Human activities such as:
• Cutting down forests (deforestation)
• Poorly planned infrastructure
• Construction blocking natural water flow
• These make slopes unstable and increase landslide risks.

d. Forest Fires:- Uncontrolled fires that spread quickly through vegetation. Fueled by:

• Dry weather
• Drought
• Strong winds
• Human carelessness (accidental fires)
• Where Are Forest Fires Common?

States with large forest or grassland areas, such as:

• Uttarakhand
• Himachal Pradesh
• Madhya Pradesh
• Chhattisgarh
• Western Ghats

Effects of Forest Fires:- 

• Destruction of large forest areas.
• Harm to wildlife.
• Damage to ecosystems.
• Poor air quality.
• Displacement of local communities.
• Significant environmental and economic losses.

Climate Change:- Climate change refers to long-term changes in:

• Temperature
• Rainfall patterns
• Weather events
• It can occur globally or regionally.

Natural vs. Human-Caused Change:- In the past, climate change happened due to natural processes (like volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, etc.).

• Since the 19th century, the major cause has been human activity, especially:
• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
• Deforestation
• Polluting industries
• Overconsumption and waste

The Greenhouse Effect:-Earth’s atmosphere naturally traps some of the Sun’s heat – this is called the greenhouse effect and it keeps the planet warm enough for life. Human activities release too many greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide (CO₂).

This causes:

• Extra heat to get trapped
• Global warming
• Disruption of natural climate patterns

Effects in India:- Example: In early 2025, India had temperatures 1–3°C above normal.

• Shorter, milder winters
• Poor agricultural output
• Disrupted small industries

Why It Matters:- Climate change increases the risk of disasters like floods, heatwaves, and droughts. 

It affects:

• Farming
• Economy
• Health
• Water and food security

What Can Be Done?:- Governments and people can take action through:

• Reducing emissions
• Planting more trees
• Using renewable energy (like solar or wind)
• Saving energy
• Sustainable living (less waste, more reuse)

However, this often conflicts with economic growth and high consumption.

NCERT QUESTIONS

1.  Match the climatic factors with their effects:

 Column A                                                Column B

 (1) Latitude                                                  (a) Brings wet air to India during summer

 (2) Altitude                                                  (b) Creates different climates in 

 (3) Proximity to the ocean                           (c)  Keeps higher places cooler 

 (4) Monsoon winds                                      (d) Moderates the temperature

Answer:- (1 -b)   (2-c)   (3-d)    (4-a)

2.  Answer the following questions:

 a) What is the difference between weather and climate?

 b) Why do places near the ocean have milder temperatures than places far away from it?

 c) What role do monsoon winds play in affecting India’s climate?

 d) Why is Chennai warm or hot throughout the year, while Leh is cold?

Answer:- 

a) :-

• Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere (like rain, heat, or wind).
• Climate is the average weather pattern of a place over a long period (30+ years).

b) :- The ocean moderates the temperature by cooling the land in summer and warming it in winter, making coastal areas milder.

c):- Monsoon winds bring seasonal rainfall, which is crucial for agriculture and water supply in India.

d):-

• Chennai is near the Equator and at sea level, so it stays warm.
• Leh is at a high altitude, so it remains cold most of the year.

 3.  Look at a map of India given at the end of this book. Identify the climate for these cities — Leh, Chennai, Delhi, Panaji and Jaipur.

• Is the place near the sea, in the mountains, or in the desert? 
• How do these factors affect the climate there?

Answer:- 1. Leh (Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir)

• Location: In the Himalayan mountains, at a high altitude
• Climate: Cold alpine climate — very cold winters, cool summers
• Effect of location: High altitude means thinner air and lower temperatures year-round. Snowfall is common in winter.

2. Chennai (Tamil Nadu)

• Location: On the eastern coast, near the Bay of Bengal
• Climate: Tropical climate — hot and humid throughout the year
• Effect of location: Being near the sea, Chennai has milder temperature changes. It receives rainfall from the northeast monsoon in winter.

3. Delhi

• Location: In the northern plains, away from the sea
• Climate: Subtropical — very hot summers and cold winters
• Effect of location: Distance from the sea means more extreme temperatures. Surrounded by land, so no sea breeze to moderate the climate.

4. Panaji (Goa)

• Location: On the western coast, near the Arabian Sea
• Climate: Tropical wet climate — warm and receives heavy rainfall during the southwest monsoon
• Effect of location: Coastal location moderates temperature and brings lots of rain in monsoon months.

5. Jaipur (Rajasthan)

• Location: In or near the Thar Desert, inland
• Climate: Arid or semi-arid — very hot summers, cool nights, and low rainfall
• Effect of location: Desert region means dry and extreme weather. Lack of vegetation and moisture makes it hotter during the day and cooler at night.

These factors — proximity to sea, altitude, and topography — play a major role in shaping the climate of each place.

                                                                

 Q. 6.  Imagine you are a farmer in India. Write a short diary entry about how you would prepare for the rainy season.

Answer:- Diary Entry – June 5 (Mention any date during Rainy Season)

Today, the sky looked heavy with clouds. The monsoon is almost here, and I must get everything ready. I checked the fields to make sure the bunds are strong and won’t let water wash away the soil. We cleaned the canals and checked the pump sets too. Tomorrow, I will buy the paddy seeds and fertilizers. My wife is drying the grain sacks and covering the stored grain to keep it safe from the rain. This is the most important season for us — if the rains come on time, we will have a good harvest.

Q.  7.  Identify a natural disaster (e.g., cyclone, flood, landslide, or forest fire) and write a short essay that includes the causes and impacts. Suggest actions that individuals, communities and the government can take to reduce the impact.

Answer:- Floods in India

Floods are one of the most common natural disasters in India. They are mainly caused by heavy rainfall, overflowing rivers, glacial bursts, and poor urban drainage. During monsoon season, areas like Bihar, Assam, and Kerala often face severe flooding.

The impacts of floods are serious: homes are destroyed, crops are damaged, people lose their belongings, and diseases can spread through dirty water. Roads, bridges, and power lines also get damaged, affecting daily life and the economy.

To reduce the impact of floods:

• Individuals should keep emergency kits ready, avoid building on floodplains, and listen to weather alerts.
• Communities can keep drains clean, build raised platforms for shelter, and help each other during rescue and relief.
• The government should build strong embankments, improve drainage systems, plant more trees, and provide early warning systems.

Chapter - 2 Understanding the Weather

 Chapter - 2 Understanding the Weather

What is Weather:-

• Weather is the condition of the Earth’s atmosphere at a specific time and place.
• Atmosphere is the layer of gases (mainly nitrogen and oxygen) surrounding Earth—what we commonly call air.
• The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, where all living land-based organisms exist and where almost all weather occurs.
• The troposphere ranges in thickness from about 6 km at the poles to 18 km at the equator, depending on temperature (cold air contracts, warm air expands).
• Common weather descriptors include hot, cold, rainy, cloudy, humid, snowy, and windy, which reflect how we experience weather through our senses.

The elements of weather:

• Temperature – how hot or cold the air is
• Humidity – the amount of moisture (water vapor) in the air
• Precipitation – water falling from the sky (rain, snow, sleet, hail)
• Wind – the movement of air from one place to another
• Air Pressure – the weight of the air pressing down on the Earth

1. Forecast: A prediction of what the weather will be like in the future, based on observations and data (e.g., "The forecast says it will rain tomorrow").
2. Sleet: A type of precipitation where raindrops freeze into ice pellets before hitting the ground. It’s like frozen rain.
3. Hail: Hard balls or lumps of ice that form in strong thunderstorms and fall from the sky, usually larger and harder than sleet.
4. Water Vapour: The gas form of water found in the air. It forms clouds when it cools and can later fall as rain, snow, or other types of precipitation.

Observing Nature’s Clues

• Over the last few centuries, scientists have developed accurate methods to measure the elements of weather.
• These measurements help meteorologists (weather scientists) predict the weather in advance—sometimes hours, days, or even weeks ahead.
• Weather forecasting isn’t based on guessing or simply looking at the sky.
• Instead, meteorologists use scientific tools and gadgets to collect weather data.

Weather Instrument: 

1. Temperature:- Thermometers are tools used to measure air temperature.

There are different types:

• Standard thermometers: Measure the current (ambient) temperature.
• Max–Min thermometers: Record the highest and lowest temperatures in a day.
• Many thermometers use a colored liquid (like mercury or alcohol) that expands when heated.
• Digital thermometers are now commonly used because they are:-More precise, Able to store and record data

Useful Temperature Statistics:

• Temperature Range = Maximum temperature − Minimum temperature (over 24 hours)
• Mean Daily Temperature = (Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature) ÷ 2

Ambient:-Of the immediate surroundings.

Statistics:- The technique of gathering and analysing information or data in order to be able to detect patterns, understand events or make predictions

2. Precipitation:- Precipitation includes rain, snow, sleet, or hail, but here the focus is on rainfall.

• Rainfall is measured using a tool called a rain gauge.
• A rain gauge works by:- Collecting rain through a funnel into a cylinder.
• Measuring the depth of the collected water using a scale on the side.

Example:

• If the water in the gauge is 5 mm high, it means 5 mm of rain fell in that area.
• So, 30 mm of rainfall means 30 mm depth of water was collected in the rain gauge during the day.

3. Atmospheric Pressure:- Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air pressing down on the Earth and everything on it.

It can affect how we feel—for example, the air may feel “heavy” before a thunderstorm because of high pressure.

Where it's higher or lower:

• High pressure: Found at sea level or near the coast.
• Low pressure: Found at higher altitudes, like in the mountains.

As you go higher up a mountain, the air becomes:

• Thinner
• Lower in pressure
• Lower in oxygen, which can make breathing harder

Effects on the body:

• At high altitudes (like in mountains), the air is thinner and contains less oxygen.
• Your lungs have to work harder to take in enough oxygen.
• This is why people may feel breathless, dizzy, or tired at high elevations.

Pressure at different places:

• Generally higher near the sea coast.
• Lower at higher altitudes like mountains.
• Not always high at sea level—sometimes, it drops sharply, forming a low-pressure system, or depression.
• Depressions can lead to storms or cyclones.

Instrument used:

• A barometer measures atmospheric pressure.
• There are different types (like mercury or aneroid barometers).
• Unit of measurement: millibar (Mb)

Normal pressure:

• At sea level, it is around 1013 Mb.
• A reading below 1000 Mb indicates a depression.

Wind – Wind is the movement of air from one place to another. It is caused by differences in air pressure between areas.

1. Two Important Factors That Influence Wind

• Air Pressure: Wind moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
• Temperature: Warm air rises and cool air sinks, helping create wind.

2. Importance of Wind

• Pilots: Use wind direction for safe take-off and landing.
• Sailors: Rely on wind to navigate boats and ships.
• Farmers: Need to know wind conditions for planting, spraying, and irrigation.
• Wind dries soil faster – stronger wind speed makes moisture evaporate quickly, which can affect crops.

3. Instruments to Measure Wind

Wind Sock:

• Shaped like a cone and placed on tarmacs (airports).
• Shows the direction of wind.
• Used by pilots and in industries releasing gases or smoke.

Anemometer:

• Has 3 or 4 cups that spin when wind blows.
• The faster it spins, the stronger the wind.
• Measures wind speed in km/h using a meter at the base.

Humidity:- Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the air.

• It depends on factors like temperature, wind, pressure, and location.
• Understanding Relative Humidity
• Relative Humidity measures how much water vapor the air holds compared to the maximum it can hold at a certain temperature.
• 0% humidity = no water vapor in the air (not natural).
• 100% humidity = air saturated with water vapor.

Range of Humidity:

• Dry weather: Usually 20% - 40% relative humidity.
• Humid weather: Usually 60% - 80% relative humidity.

How is Humidity Measured?

• Instrument: A hygrometer measures humidity.
• There are several types of hygrometers, based on different principles (e.g., hair hygrometer, electronic hygrometer).

Why is Humidity Important?

• Industry: Important for processes like food preservation and manufacturing.
• Museums: Monitor humidity to preserve exhibits by maintaining a dry environment.

Weather Stations:- A weather station is a place where different instruments are combined to measure and track various aspects of the weather.

• Instruments at the station can measure temperature, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, precipitation, and atmospheric pressure.
• The readings are taken regularly, allowing meteorologists to map and forecast the weather over time.
• Automated Weather Station (AWS)
• AWS is a self-operating system that measures and records weather data automatically.

It uses sensors to track key weather elements:

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Wind speed & direction
• Precipitation
• Atmospheric pressure

Benefits:

• No human intervention is needed.
• Provides accurate and timely weather information.
• Used in fields like agriculture, aviation, navigation, and environmental monitoring.

Predicting the Weather:- Accurate predictions help us to be ready for such events. They also enable local governments to mobilise resources and prepare for any disasters. Meteorologists collect and study weather data using instruments like:

• Thermometers (temperature)
• Barometers (pressure)
• Rain gauges (precipitation)
• Anemometers (wind speed)
• Hygrometers (humidity)

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. Match the instrument with the weather element it measures.  Instrument used Element of the Weather

(1) Hygrometer                                                               (a) Precipitation

(2) Anemometer                                                             (b) Atmospheric pressure

(3) Barometer                                                                 (c) Wind direction and speed

(4) Thermometer                                                             (d) Humidity

(5) Rain gauge                                                                 (e) Temperature

Answer:- (1 - d)  (2 - c) (3 - b) (4 - e) (5 - a)

2. Jyotsna is deciding what clothes to pack for her school trip to Mumbai in June. She looks at the weather forecast, which predicts 29°C and 84% humidity. What would be your advice to her?

Answer:- Weather Forecast for Mumbai in June:

• Temperature: 29°C (Warm)
• Humidity: 84% (Very high)

Advice on What to Pack:

• Lightweight, breathable clothes – Cotton or linen clothes will help her stay cool and comfortable.
• Loose-fitting garments – Tight clothes may feel sticky and uncomfortable in high humidity.
• Raincoat or umbrella – June marks the beginning of the monsoon in Mumbai, so it often rains.
• Comfortable footwear – Waterproof sandals or shoes that dry quickly are best.
• Hat or cap – For sun protection when it's not raining.
• Water bottle – Staying hydrated is important in humid weather.
• Towel or face wipes – To stay fresh and dry off sweat.

3. Imagine that a small group of students is setting up a rain gauge. Here are some options for the site.

1. The school vegetable garden.

2. The terrace of the school building.

3. Open ground with elevated platform.

4. Compound wall of school.

5. Verandah of the school laboratory.

Discuss in your group and finalise the site. Write down the reasons for your decision.

Answer:- Open ground with elevated platform

Reason:

It is in an open area without obstructions like trees or buildings, ensuring accurate rainfall measurement. The elevated platform prevents splashes or flooding from affecting the readings.