Chapter 4: Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation Class 9 – NCERT

 Class 9 – Chapter 4: Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

1. Introduction

• Human history began millions of years before writing.
• History before writing is called Prehistory.
• Knowledge comes mainly from archaeological evidence.

Earliest writing systems:

• Harappan Script (undeciphered)
• Cuneiform (Mesopotamia)
• Hieroglyphics (Egypt)

Keywords

• Prehistory
• Archaeology
• Harappan Script
• Cuneiform
• Hieroglyphics
• Brahmi Script

2. Why Study Early Human History? Early human history helps us understand the long process of humankind's biological and cultural evolution in relation to changes in climate and the environment.

Biological Evolution:- 

• It refers to the gradual physical and genetic changes through early ancestors.
• Early ancestors known as australopithecines ( australis means souther and pithecus is primates)
• Physical development from early ancestors to Homo sapiens.

Cultural Evolution:-

• It refers ow human adapted to their surrounding during the Quaternary Period.
• Development of tools, farming, technology and civilisation.
• Over time human way of life changed from hunting and gathering to agriculture and food production.

Key Facts

• Early humans evolved in Africa.
• Homo erectus first migrated out of Africa (~2 million years ago).
• Homo sapiens evolved around 300,000 years ago.

Keywords

• Biological Evolution
• Cultural Evolution
• Homo erectus
• Homo sapiens
• Out of Africa Theory

3. Before and After Writing

Before Writing                         After Writing

Archaeological evidence         Written records

Approximate dates                         Accurate dates

Difficult to know thoughts         Literature available

More than 99% of history         Less than 1%

4. Who were Our Human Ancestors

Homo habilis

• "Handy Man"
• Made choppers

Homo erectus

• Used handaxes and cleavers
• First to migrate outside Africa
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Europe & Southwest Asia
• Middle Palaeolithic tools

Hominin:- 

• Homnins are a group that inclludes modern humans and our early human like ancestors.
• The tools they created are somtimes called "extra-corporal" limbs. 
• Because they functioned as extensions of the human body, helping people perform tasks they could not accomplish with their hands alone

Homo sapiens

• Modern humans, evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and spread all over the Earth. 
• Developed advanced technology

Old World:- Geographical area of the oldest human setlements of the earliest palaeollithic period.

Fossils:- The preserved remains traces, or impression of plants, animals or humans from the distant past. Fossils from when these remains get buried under layers of earth and slowly turn into stone over thousands or millions of year.

5. Archaeology:- Archaeologists Study

• Fossils
• Bones
• Stone tools
• Cave paintings
• Pottery

Importance:- Reconstructs early human life.

6. Stages of Early Human History

Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age)

• Palaeo means "old", and lithic means "stone".
• Hunting & gathering
• Stone tools
• Caves
• Handaxes

Mesolithic

• Microliths
• Fishing
• Rock paintings
• Semi-settled life

Neolithic

• Agriculture
• Domestication
• Permanent villages
• Pottery
• Chalcolithic
• Copper + Stone tools

Bronze Age

• Bronze tools
• Cities
• Writing
• Trade
• Iron Age
• Iron tools
• Strong weapons

7. Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers:- Features

• Lived in caves.
• Hunted animals.
• Gathered fruits and roots.

Used:

• Handaxes
• Cleavers
• Scrapers
• Choppers:- these tools made of quartzite and limestone.
• Later human invented the bow nad arrow, as well as parallel-sided blade and microblade tools.

Important Sites

• Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu)
• Isampur (Karnataka)

8. Mesolithic Period:- About 12000 years ago,

• Earth became warmer, leading to significant changes in environment.
• Forests and Grasslands expanded into areas covered by ice.

Features

• Climate became warmer.
• Microliths developed.
• Fishing increased.
• Cave paintings flourished.
• Temporary settlements.

Important Site:- Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)

9. Neolithic Revolution:- Major Changes

• Farming started.
• Animal domestication.
• Permanent villages.
• Pottery making.
• Food surplus.

Importance

• Beginning of civilisation.
• Domesticated Animals:- Sheep, Goat, Cattle, Crops, Wheat, Barley, Rice, Millets

10. Neolithic period in India Subcontinent https://link.amazon/B0aglnW0v

Neolithic India

• Mehrgarh:- on the Bolan River (present day in Pakistan). Oldest Neolithic site
• Around 7000 BCE
• Wheat & barley
• Sheep, goats and "Zebu" humped bull. 
• Mud-brick houses
• Granaries
• Sanganakallu

Important Neolithic site:- Mehargarh, Karnataka. 

11. Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation

• Development around 7000 BCE at Mehrgarh in the foothills of Baluchistan.
• Spread in the middle and upper Indus valley and further east. 

Neolithic

• → Chalcolithic sites in the subcontinent marking the beginning of the bronze age.
• → Early Harappan
• → Mature Harappan

Features

• Planned cities
• Pottery
• Bead making
• Copper work
• Seals
• Standard weights
• Harappan Script

Major Sites

• Harappa
• Mohenjo-Daro
• Dholavira
• Lothal
• Kalibangan
• Rakhigarhi

Timeline

• Early Harappan – 3300 BCE (Bronze Age)
• Mature Harappan – 2600–1900 BCE
• Late Harappan – 1900–1300 BCE

Bhirrana and Kunal, Pre-Harappan phase began between 7000 and 5500 BCE.

Evidence of Earlly Harappan bead production is found from Harappan in Pakistan as well as from Kunal in Haryana and Datrana in Gujrat.

Harappan writng and script probably beginning in this stage.

Radio Carbon:-  is a scientific method that can accurately determine the age of organic materials as old as approximately 60,000 years.

12. Bronze Age Civilisations:- Common Features

• River valleys
• Agriculture
• Trade
• Writing
• Urban centres
• Administration
• Trade

Four Civilisations

• Sindhu–Sarasvatī
• Mesopotamia
• Egypt
• China

13. Mesopotamian Civilisation:- 

• The land between river, it is the Greek word.
• In modern times, this region includes maily Iraq and Kuwait 
• Farming began in this region 12000 years before persent.
• Copper tools arrived here 4500 BCE.
• The crescent-shaped foothills of the Zagros and Taurus, stretching from Mediterranean in the west to the Persian Gulf.
• Persian Gulf in the EAst are known as the fertile crescent.

Rivers:- Tigris & Euphrates

• Writing
• Cuneiform
• Temple:- Ziggurat

Major Civilisations

Sumerian:- 

• Capital/Important City:- Ur was one of the most important Sumerian city-states.
• The Sumerians were the first to:- Build a system of dams and canals for irrigation., Use mud bricks and burnt bricks for constructing houses, walls, and buildings.
• Develop the cuneiform writing system (around 3300 BCE). It gives us information about Mesopotamian civilization.

Ziggurat

• A ziggurat was a stepped pyramid-shaped temple.
• The main temple was located at the top.
  

Worship

• The Sumerians were polytheistic (worshipped many gods).
• They believed gods controlled natural forces like floods and winds.
• Every city had a chief god and a grand ziggurat dedicated to that deity.

Division of Society

• Kings – Ruled the city-states.
• High priests and priestesses – Managed temples and religious activities; belonged to the ruling class.
• Merchants and traders – Conducted trade.
• Craftsmen – Potters, metalworkers, textile makers, etc.
• Farmers – Grew crops and supported the economy.
• Labourers – Worked in agriculture and construction.
• They were engaged:- Metalworking, farming, textiles, crafts, etc.
• Scribe had high status. 

Akkadian:-  The power of Sumerians was overshadowed in 2334 BCE by yhe emergence of a new city state on the city of Akkad.

• They had different language but script was same (Cuneiform).
• This was the period which saw the evolution of creative literature.
• Akkadian king:- Sargon
• Sargon talk about trade with eastern territories of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha.
• Meluhha is generally identified with the Sindhu-saraswati civilization.

Assyrian:- Akkadian supermacy lost around 2154 BCE to a new city state Assur, innorthen Mesopotamia.

Babylonian:- Rise of Babylonia

Babylonia became the dominant city-state in central Mesopotamia from 1900 BCE onwards.

Its glory began with the ascendance of King Hammurabi in 1792 BCE.

Hammurabi's Achievements

• Expanded Babylonia into a large empire by conquering neighbouring regions.
• Introduced the Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest written law codes.
• The code provided rules and regulations for civil and social conduct.
• It became a foundation for many future legal systems.

Decline of Babylonia:- By 1400 BCE, Babylonia lost its earlier prominence. Reasons:

• Repeated attacks by the Hittites and other rising powers.
• New technologies used by rival kingdoms.
• Environmental degradation.
• Pressure on agricultural land.
• Internal political and economic problems.
• As a result, Babylonian dominance declined, and new powers emerged in West Asia.

14. Egyptian Civilisation:-  Known for its rich historical records.

River:- Nile

Collection of works:- De L' Egypte. It provides details about Egyptian Civilizations

Features

• Pharaoh
• Pyramids
• Mummification
• Hieroglyphics
• Papyrus:- Old paper
• Calendar (365 days) 912 months X 30 days + 5 extra days)
• Dog statr:- Rising sirius

Agriculture:- 5000 years ago divert Nile river water through digging ditches.

Social Classes

• Pharaoh:- Powerfull individual, emerged as the rulers of Egypt. 
• Pharaoh were buried deep underground and a rectuglar structure called "Mastaba"
• Mastaba were placed on on the top of the other to form a pyramid.
• Egyptian believed that each person had a ka ( a spiritual double) that lived on after death.
• Mummification: A way to preserved the body.
• Leisure activity:- Swam, canoed, Board games, enjoyed music and dancing, festival. 
• Sed Festival:- It was held to mark a king 30th year of the throne.
• Women hade more rights.
• Example of Cleopatra (69-30 BCE):- trained from child hood to rule.

15. Chinese Civilisation:-  

• 7000-2000 BCE
• Rivers:- Huang He (Yellow River), Yangtze
• Dynasties:- Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han

1. Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE)

• First major Bronze Age dynasty of China.
• Developed urban centres.
• Advanced in bronze metallurgy.
• Used oracle bones for predicting the future.
• Developed the early Chinese script.

2. Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE)

• Longest-ruling Chinese dynasty.
• Kings were considered appointed by Heaven (Mandate of Heaven).
• Public officials were selected after examinations in:
• Archery
• Horsemanship
• Writing
• Calculations
• Music
• Around 600 BCE, iron became widely used

3. Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)

• First Imperial Dynasty of China.
• Unified China into one empire.
• Began linking and strengthening the Great Wall of China.
• The name "China" is believed to come from Qin (Ch'in).

4. Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)

• One of China's greatest dynasties.
• Silk became a major export.
• The Silk Route developed for international trade.
• Expanded trade, administration, and culture.

Oracle Bones (Earliest Source)

• The earliest source of information about ancient China.
• Made from animal bones and tortoise shells.
• Bones were heated until they cracked.
• Historiographers → Official historians who recorded historical events.
• Script:- Logographic

Unique Items of Chinese Civilisation:- Jade Objects

• The Chinese were famous for jade carvings.
• Jade was used to make figurines, pendants, ornaments, and ritual objects.
• Jade was not locally available and was imported from outside China.
• It symbolised prestige and social status.

17. Major Timeline https://link.amazon/B0aglnW0v

• 3.3 million years ago – Earliest stone tools
• 2 million years ago – Homo erectus migration
• 300,000 years ago – Homo sapiens
• 12,000 years ago – Mesolithic
• 7000 BCE – Mehrgarh
• 4000 BCE – Chalcolithic
• 3300 BCE – Early Harappan
• 2600 BCE – Mature Harappan
• 3300 BCE – Cuneiform writing
• 3000 BCE – Egyptian civilisation
• 1600 BCE – Shang Dynasty

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